INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN KAMPALA CITY, CENTRAL UGANDA

By 

		Tina Nambuusi
15/MMS/24/KLA/DAY/0419

A DISSERTATION IN FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTERS DEGREE IN MANAGEMENT STUDIES (INFORMATION SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT) OF UGANDA MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE

NOVEMBER 2017
DECLARATION
I Tina Nambuusi declare that this dissertation is my original work and has never been submitted in any university for any award. In all cases where other people’s ideas have been used, they have been duly acknowledged by complete references.

Full name of Student:	 Tina Nambuusi

Signature..............................................              Date.......................

APPROVAL
This is to certify that this work has been done under my supervision and submitted for examination with my approval.

Supervisor: DR. KARIM SSESANGA

Signature..............................................              Date.......................

Supervisor:  MR. IVAN TWINOMUWEZI

Signature..............................................              Date.......................

DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my mother Jacque Ssenyondo and father Mansueto Mbabaali and all my siblings for all the support rendered to me.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I thank the almighty father Jehovah God for his divine provision and wisdom that has enabled me to complete my studies.

Special thanks go to my supervisors Dr. Karim Ssesanga and Mr. Ivan Twinomuwezi for all the invaluable support and guidance given to me which has made this report worth its while.

A vote of thanks goes to Mr. Wilfred Bongomin and Mr. Henry Akra for their intellectual advice during the study process.

Lastly, I wish to thank my head of department and supervisor Mr. Peter Kayondo and Mr. Michael Kadhaya for their unwavering support throughout this process.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION
APPROVAL
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background
1.1.1 Historical Background
1.1.2 Theoretical Background
1.1.3 Conceptual Background
1.1.4 Contextual Background
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose of the Study
1.4	Specific Objectives
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Research Hypothesis
1.7 Figure 1: Conceptual frame work: The Link between ICT and Early Childhood Education.
1.8 Justification of the Study
1.9 Significance of the Study
1.10 Scope of the Study
1.10.1 Content Scope
1.10.2 Geographical Scope
1.10.3 Time Scope
1.11 Operational Definition of Terms and Concepts
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Theoretical Review
2.1.1 Piaget’s Theory of Constructivism
2.2 Related Literature
2.2.1 ICT Infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
2.2.1.1 Hardware and Software and Early Childhood Education.
2.2.1.2 Communication Networks and Early Childhood Education
2.2.2 ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education
2.2.2.1 ICT Policies and Early Childhood Education
2.2.2.2 Professional Development and Early Childhood Education
2.2.3 ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
2.2.3.1 Teachers and Early Childhood Education
2.2.3.2 Parents and Early Childhood Education
2.2.3.3 Administrators and Early Childhood Education
2.2.3.4 Children and Early Childhood Education
2.2.4 Summary of Literature Review
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Study Population
3.4 Sampling Techniques
3.5 Data Collection Methods
3.5.1 The Questionnaire Survey Method
3.5.2 Interview
3.5.3 Observation
3.6 Data Collection Instruments
3.6.1 Self-Administered Questionnaires
3.6.2 Interview Guide
3.6.3 Observation Checklist
3.7 Validity and Reliability
3.7.1 Validity
3.7.2 Reliability
3.8 Data Management and Analysis
3.8.1 Analysis of Quantitative Data
3.8.2 Analysis of Qualitative Data
3.9 Measurement of variables
3.10 Ethical considerations
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Response rate
4.2 Demographic Characteristics
4.2.1 Distribution of Respondents by Age
4.2.2 Distribution of Respondents by Gender
4.2.3 Distribution of Respondents by Qualification
4.2.4 Distribution of Respondents by Number of Years Spent in the School
4.3 Empirical Findings
4.3.1 Early Childhood Education
4.3.2 ICT Infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
4.3.3 ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education
4.3.4 ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
4.4 Multiple Regression
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Summary of the Study Findings
5.1.1 ICT Infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
5.1.2 ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education
5.1.3 ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
5.2 Discussion of the Study Findings
5.2.1 ICT infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
5.2.2 ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education
5.2.3 ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
5.3 Conclusions
5.3.1 ICT Infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
5.3.2 ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education
5.3.3 ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
5.4 Recommendations of the Study
5.4.1 ICT Infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
5.4.2 ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education
5.4.3 ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
5.5 Limitations of the Study
5.6 Contributions of the Study
5.7 Areas for Further Research
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS
APPENDIX II: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ADMINISTRATORS
APPENDIX III: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PARENTS
APPENDIX IV: OBSERVATION CHECKLIST
APPENDIX V:     CHILDREN’S QUESTIONNAIRE
APPENDIX VI: KREJCIE AND MORGAN SAMPLING GUIDELINES

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Population Category and Sample size of Respondents
Table 3.2: Questionnaire ratings
Table 3.3: Reliability Statistics
Table 4.1: Response rate
Table 4.2:  Respondents by Age (Teachers and Parents)
Table 4.3: Respondents by Age (Children)
Table 4.4: Respondents by Gender (Teachers and Parents)
Table 4.5: Respondents by Gender (Children)
Table 4.6: Respondents by Qualification (Teachers and Parents)
Table 4.7: Respondents by Number of Years Spent in the School
Table 4.8: Distribution of Respondents by perception on Early Childhood Education and ICT
Table 4.9: Distribution of Pupils’ Scores on the Survey Regarding their Skills
Table 4.10: Distribution of Respondents by Perception on the Contribution of ICT Infrastructure to Early Childhood Education
Table 4.11: Correlation between ICT Infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
Table 4.12: Distribution of Respondents by Perception about the Influence of ICT Procedures on Early Childhood Education
Table 4.13: Correlation between ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education
Table 4.14: Distribution of Respondents by Perception about the Influence of ICT Stakeholders on Early Childhood Education
Table 4.15: Correlation between ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
Table 4.17: ANOVAa
Table 4.18: Coefficientsa

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ECE                          Early Childhood Education
ECD                          Early Childhood Development
FENU                       Forum for Education NGOs in Uganda
MoES                       Ministry of Education and Sports 
UNICEF                   United Nations Children’s Fund
UNESCO                 United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organisation
ICT                           Information and Communication Technology
MoFPED                  Ministry of Finance Planning and Economic Development
NAEYC                    National Association for the Education of Young Children
UIS                           Unesco Institute of statistics
KPS                          Kampala Parents School
AGA                        Agha Khan Nursey School
GNS                         Greenhill Nursery School
LA                            Lohana Academy

ABSTRACT
The study investigated the contribution of ICT to early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools. It sought to establish how ICT infrastructure, ICT procedures and ICT stakeholders contribute and influence early childhood education. A cross sectional survey design was adapted and data was collected using the questionnaire survey, interviews and observation data collection methods from a sample of 205 respondents made up of parents, teachers and children. Data was analyzed using a Pearson’s correlation analysis and the findings revealed that ICT infrastructure had a positive significant contribution to early childhood education, ICT procedures had a positive significant influence on early childhood education and ICT stakeholders had a positive significant influence on early childhood education. The study concluded that ICT infrastructure tools and networks like computers, electronic whiteboards, electronic toys, the internet and other similar devices should continuously be used in pre-schools to aid the education of children. The study also concluded that ICT procedures like having ICT policies were essential to streamline agreed procedures and responsibilities concerned with the education of children while ICT professional development programs were necessary for the improvement of the teachers’ skills. The study finally concluded that ICT stakeholder support was very essential to the success of utilizing ICT in the education of children as long as the parents, teachers and administrators played their respective roles. The study therefore recommended that government pre-schools adopt ICT in their early childhood curriculum to promote the holistic development of children with support from the government, MoES and UNICEF. It also recommended that teachers should continuously use ICT in the education of young children with support from administrators and parents and finally, the study recommended that the government, MoES together with UNICEF should support and oversee the development of ICT policies in the early childhood sector in order to support the holistic development of the children in all pre-schools in the country.  Future studies are encouraged to focus on studying ICT and early childhood education using a different research design that allows for collection of data over longer periods of time and also include pre-schools in other areas other than Kampala.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
The study investigated the contribution of ICT to Early Child Education (ECE) in Kampala city central, Uganda. ICT was conceived as the independent variable while Early Childhood Education was conceived as the dependent variable. ICT was measured in the form of ICT infrastructure, ICT procedures and ICT stakeholders while early childhood education was measured in the form of verbal skills, numeracy, literacy and creativity as explained in the conceptual framework. The chapter presented the  background to the study, problem statement, purpose, objectives, research questions, hypotheses, conceptual framework, justification, significance, scope and the operational definitions and concepts of the study.`
1.1 Background
1.1.1 Historical Background
The practice of Education Technology goes as far back as 1872, the year in which the first practical type writer with a QWERTY keyboard was invented by Christopher Sholes. Typing classes proliferated and educators soon noticed that children who learnt to type improved their reading and writing skills. By 1930, sound recording and motion pictures became important resources in many United States schools. In 1965, mini computers and main frames were introduced in many schools (Sammy, 2007).
Celestin Freinet was one of the first pioneers of using ICT in early learning. He formulated an educational framework by integrating pedagogical ideas and ICTs that can be used in modern applications today. In 1924, he introduced the Learning Printing Technique in which children would use a printing press to reproduce texts that they had composed from their experiences and adventures. These would then be discussed by the whole class and later be used to make a class journal (Schlemminger, 1996; Kalas, 2010). His ideas were later supported by constructivists like Jean Piaget and Seymour Papert and today, they are widely being implemented in pre-school classrooms.
In 1990, over 155 countries worldwide agreed on a collective plan of action which was to fulfill some of the education for all goals, with the first requiring them to work towards the improvement of Early Childhood Education (ECE) by year 2015. Uganda, as one of the participants at the ‘Darkar Framework of Action’ also committed herself to achieve the goals pertaining to early childhood education (Ejuu, 2012).
Developing countries therefore considered the adoption of ICT as a means to enhance the quality of services in their educational institutions. According to Farrell and Shafika (2007), ICT diffusion in Africa is still in transition and the formulation of ICT Policies is one of the primary areas that governments are giving priority. These have helped to define goals and implementation strategies of ICT in the education sector. Countries like Kenya and Tanzania have made excellent progress.
Governments in East Africa emphasize the enhancement of teacher pedagogical skills and professional development. For example, Tanzania and Kenya have comprehensive ICT policies that support the improvement of the teachers’ ICT skills and pedagogies which are fundamental to the implementation of ICT into curriculum (Hennessy, Harrison & Wamakote, 2010). Kenya for instance realigned its education system according to the Constitution of Kenya 2010 which led to the development of digital content at the Kenya Institute of Education. It also made an ICT curriculum at teacher training level to ensure that ICT development is holistic and integrated with all levels of education as envisioned in the Kenya Vision 2030 (Global Economic Symposium, 2011).
Additionally, the Kenyan government  placed greater emphasis on early childhood education by providing more financial and physical resources like computers to early childhood programs, developed through the Kenyan Institute of Education a comprehensive curriculum for early childhood education to include computer games in order to introduce and enhance computing skills in young pupils and established a modern library and resource center for early childhood education (Global Economic Symposium, 2011). 
In Tanzania, the national ICT policy that was published in 2003 encourages the use and expansion of ICT in teaching to improve the quality of education and training in all areas and levels of the national system of formal and informal education and training (Kabate, 2016). The early childhood education is provided by both government and non-government organizations and the use of ICT is widely being implemented in these schools with the conviction that they provide high quality learning and improve child outcomes.  The government invested heavily in ICT resources in order to enhance the children’s cognitive, social and intellectual abilities while creating realistic learning (Binangi, Kainamula & Kweka, 1999).
Uganda developed its first national ICT policy in 2003 which recognized that she embraces the goal of lifelong learning with objective number two as literacy improvement and human resource capacity building. It included strategies such as integration of ICT into mainstream educational curricula and developing and managing ICT centers of excellence to provide basic and advanced ICT training. These strategies led to the formation of an ICT working group that suggested a number of recommendations which included the establishment of the Ministry of ICT in 2006 to handle matters concerning ICT, policy development and co-ordination (Farrell, 2007).
The Ugandan government therefore understands some of the future needs of the country although it still struggles to implement plans appropriately because of the reoccurring problems such as food shortage, healthcare, poverty, and high population growth. Despite such challenges, the use of ICT in learning is highly valued. With the development of the national ICT policy in 2003 and the Early Childhood Development (ECD) policy in 2007, Uganda has undertaken a comprehensive reform of its pre-school education system which is focusing mainly on improving the equity and quality of pre-school education for all children in Uganda (Forum for Education NGO’s Uganda [FENU], 2007) although little is known about how it is impacting the pre-school children’s education.
Ejuu, (2012) noted that investment in early childhood education can create greater social cohesion for children as well as reduce the social gaps between poor and non-poor communities. MoEs together with UNICEF have therefore been very instrumental in the creation of ECE centers and the provision of technical infrastructure in various districts which have helped in the holistic development of children in Uganda (MoES, 2015).
Currently, children aged 3-5 are expected to be enrolled in pre-school such that by age 6 they can proceed to primary school.
1.1.2 Theoretical Background
This study was guided by Jean Piaget’s theory of constructivism (1896- 1980). This theory states that children produce knowledge and form meaning based upon their experiences and interactions (Piaget, 1980). Constructivism assumes that the child’s learning is advanced through three main mechanisms that is; assimilation which is fitting a new experience into an existing mental structure (schema), accommodation which is revising an existing schema because of a new experience and equilibrium which is seeking cognitive stability through accommodation and assimilation.  Constructivism also assumes that the child’s learning is based on active performance rather than the passive acquisition of knowledge. It is an educational theory based on constructional aspects such as creating, discovery learning, inquiry based learning, teamwork and doing things that broaden the child’s knowledge which in turn build on the child’s current level of cognitive functioning (Piaget, 1980; Catelynn & Ryan, 2012).
 The use of ICT in the education of children is considered to be one of the constructivist learning approaches to the application of the theory. ICT tools like the use of computers, interactive whiteboards, electronic toys and other similar devices provide an opportunity for children to actively participate rather than be passive listeners to their teacher’s instructions. They offer children the opportunity to engage in several activities that provide for a wealth of experiences such as playing games, sending out media messages, playing and interacting with different digital tools that foster creative learning (Chan, 2002). As the theory states, this helps them to be able to generate knowledge based on what they experience when they interact with these tools (Chan, 2002). The theory has been chosen because it supports the idea of a developmentally appropriate education that focuses on children’s interests and their ability to become active performers throughout their different developmental stages.  It looks at teachers and parents as agents of instruction and administrators as facilitators of learning. With the use of ICT, teachers can engage children by providing knowledge expansion tools, like computers, electronic whiteboards, electronic toys, that children use collaboratively and cooperatively through inquiry, exploration, teamwork and evaluation. 
1.1.3 Conceptual Background
UNESCO and UNICEF (2012) define Early childhood Education as a range of processes and mechanisms that sustain, support and aid in the holistic development of children, from birth to the age of eight years. Although various scholars mention a number of mechanisms that can be applied to achieve the holistic development of children, the role of ICT in the promotion of early childhood education has been reported to stand out (UNICEF, 2012).
The study was therefore interested in the following key learning areas in pre-schools that ICT could support. These include verbal, literacy, creativity and numeracy skills considering children aged 3 to 6 years.  Throughout the study the terms early childhood development, early learning, early childhood education and pre-school education were used as synonyms. The study was also interested in studying the partnership and perceptions of the administrators, teachers and parents concerning the use of ICT in the learning process of the children.
Although commonly used, the term ICT has many interpretations used in different contexts. This study concentrated on studying ICT in the context of education specifically, early childhood education. Doyle (2002) defines ICT as any device or system that allows the storage, retrieval, transmission and manipulation of information. He further notes that an ICT system consists of six components that is, people, data, procedures, hardware, software and information. Likewise, Kalas (2012) defines ICT as a rich set of digital tools, techniques, environments, procedures and equipment which could be employed to support the teaching, learning and development of cognitive abilities in children in early childhood education. He however notes that ICT in the context of education is perceived as two-winged. That is, technology as an informational medium which means acquiring information and skills, and as a construction medium which means creating, discovering and constructing knowledge.
With reference to Doyle’s definition, people are taken to mean individuals that are needed to supply data or information to the ICT system, those impacted by the application of ICT and also those who make judgments and decisions from the output supplied from the system (Doyle, 2002). In this study, the term ICT stakeholders was therefore, taken to mean people, specifically, teachers, parents and administrators who are responsible for ICT decision making when it comes to early childhood education and the pre-school children who are impacted by the use of ICT.
Furthermore, the term procedures according to Doyle (2002) means determining what needs to be done and when. He gives an example of administrative procedures that are put in place to improve skills development such as training. This concept was adapted to this study and procedures such as professional development and policy formulation were cited as some of the variables that were measured.
In addition, Doyle (2002) also mentions hardware which are the physical components that makeup an ICT system, and software which are the programs that provide the step by step instructions to get a job done using the ICT system. These two terms, hardware and software were used in this study to refer to computers, electronic whiteboards, digital cameras, projectors, programmable toys, educational software, digital tools and other similar devices. In this study, ICT further referred to communication networks which meant the presence of internet connectivity, use of educational websites and online learning systems to emphasize the informational aspect of ICT. The term ICT infrastructure therefore referred to ICT hardware, software and communication networks. This study therefore understood the broad term ICT to mean ICT infrastructure, ICT procedures and ICT Stakeholders as explained above in a balanced way that included both the informational and constructional aspects of ICT.
1.1.4 Contextual Background
With the adoption of ICT in education, Uganda has many challenges like a poorly developed ICT infrastructure, high bandwidth costs, unstable supply of electricity and so many other needs that have not been met (Farrell, 2007). But with the need to have a computer literate population and the growing importance of ICT, MoES has made great progress in the creation of computer laboratories and an ICT curriculum in schools (MoES, 2015).
Uganda is one of the many African countries that still has majority of her people living in poverty.  One of the ways to eradicate poverty and inequality among people however is through the introduction of Early Childhood Education (ECE) programs that place children on equal ground before starting primary education regardless of their different situations in life like ignorance, poverty and the like (Ejuu, 2012).
The importance of early childhood education has not been fully understood by the Ugandan society due to a lack of awareness and uncertainty by parents of the influence ECE has on their children’s performance. Heckman and Masterov (2007) however note that investing in ECE is investing in human capital which breeds overall success for the nation including communities and families. ECE is therefore seen as a sure way to develop human capital as seen from developed countries that have invested heavily in early childhood education regarding science and technology (Ejuu, 2012).
Upon this background, Uganda has adopted the use of ICT in its education system and MoES has rendered support by developing a policy on ICT for schools and institutions with one of the critical tasks being adoption of ICT related activities in their curriculum to enhance global knowledge sharing and information dissemination for development (MoES, 2008). This however, necessitates the government to provide continuous professional development to teachers to enhance their pedagogical skills and help them learn how to use current aids of instruction. All this needs suitable support ranging from sufficient training to accessibility of updated resources and information. 
The connectivity for Educator Development (Connect – ED) Project which was initiated in May 2000 is one of the ICT initiatives in the promotion of early childhood education. This is using technology to enhance teaching and learning to teachers through the creation of multifaceted approaches to integrating media and computers in schools. Connect – ED was able to accomplish this by setting up Education Technology Centers thereby increasing availability, access and provision of relevant and quality learning materials as well as support for teacher professional development (Farrell, 2007).
Over the last 10 years, the government has worked towards attaining a balanced level of access and equity to pre-schools. Despite the fact that ECE programs have been mainly left to the private sector, NGOs and parents groups, the government has leveraged on Public Private Partnership (PPP) to develop ECE in the country. This approach involves collaboration between the private and public sectors. While the government through MoES concentrates on the creation of an enabling environment like policy development, standards’ setting and quality assurance, the private sector’s role on the other hand involves provision of infrastructure and services (Uganda Child Rights NGO Network [U.C.R.N], 2006; MoFPED, 2016).
The issue of ICT and early childhood education however seems to remain an unexplored research area especially since the adoption of ICT has continuously been reported to be more in private than in government funded pre-schools (MoES, 2015).This study therefore investigated the contribution of ICT to early childhood education concentrating on Kampala private pre-schools as these have so far reported the highest adoption rates of ICT in the teaching and learning of children (MoES, 2015).
1.2 Problem Statement
Early childhood education is critical in the wellbeing of a child. There is a positive link between early childhood learning and future holistic development of a child (“The State of Early Childhood Education”, 2012). In a bid to improve every child’s well-being and holistic development, many pre-schools in Uganda have adopted ICT in their curricula such as the use of computers, electronic white boards and other similar devices (Mbatudde, 2016; Ejuu, 2012). This is intended to effect and support child development and learning activities in the schools. Notable to mention is that whereas these initiatives have made tremendous strides in school connectivity, teacher training and promotion of global learning, the adoption of ICT has been reported to be more in private than in government funded pre-schools (Uwezo, 2016; Mbatudde, 2016; MoES, 2015). Moreover, the early childhood education provided in these government funded pre-schools is also reported inadequate in helping the children reach their full development potential (MoES, 2015). In addition to these discrepancies, little knowledge still remains on how ICT has contributed to early childhood education. If these issues remain unexplored, the investment and donation of ICT equipment to these pre-schools might be put to waste and the quality of teaching and learning might become sluggish which may make the schools fail in achieving their mission of promoting the holistic development of children. It is against this background that this study sought to investigate the contribution of ICT to early childhood education in Uganda, considering Kampala private pre-schools.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study was to investigate the contribution of ICT to early childhood   education in Kampala city, central Uganda.
1.4	Specific Objectives 
The specific objectives were:
1.  To establish the contribution of ICT infrastructure to early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools.
2.	To examine the influence of ICT procedures on early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools.
3.	To analyze the influence of ICT stakeholders on early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools.
1.5 Research Questions
1.	What is the contribution of ICT infrastructure to early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools?
2.	To what extent do ICT procedures influence early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools?
3.	How do ICT stakeholders influence early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools?
1.6 Research Hypothesis
1.	ICT infrastructure has a positive significant contribution to early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools.
2.	ICT procedures have a positive significant influence on early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools.
3.	ICT stakeholders have a positive significant influence on early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools.

1.7 Figure 1: Conceptual frame work: The Link between ICT and Early Childhood Education.

                       ICT
ICT Infrastructure
•	Hardware 
•	Software 
•	Communication networks 

ICT Procedures 
•	Professional development 
•	Policies 

ICT Stakeholders 
•	Administrators 
•	Teachers 
•	Parents
•	Children

•	CHILDRE

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE 
IV						       

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 
Verbal skills 
Creativity 
Literacy 
Numeracy 

                                                                                                       DEPENDENT VARIABLE

	

  Source: Modified by the researcher with the adoption of Piaget’s (1896-1980) Constructivism theory. 
1.8 Justification of the Study
As MoES (2015) points out, many pre-schools today have adopted ICT in their curricula. The adoption has however been reported to be more in private than in government funded pre-schools. Moreover, the early childhood education provided in these government funded pre-schools is still reported inadequate in helping the children reach their full development potential (MoES, 2015). Little effort has also been made to assess the contribution of ICT to early childhood education. In view of this discrepancy, the current researcher wished to narrow this knowledge gap by investigating the contribution of ICT to early childhood education in Uganda.
1.9 Significance of the Study
It was anticipated that the this study would be significant in the following ways;
It would be useful to the government, teachers and parents by informing them of the contribution of ICT to early childhood education and help the teachers to plan and evaluate their curricular and teaching methods.
It would also be useful to MoES and UNICEF as it might guide them on how to design appropriate strategies to combat the challenges being faced in the use of ICTs in the teaching and learning of children.
The study was also intended to inform ICT practitioners about how they can guide young children in the use of technology and maximize its potential benefits. This is because as various researches have shown, there exists an ongoing debate concerning the introduction of  ICT in earlier stages of education attributed to the risks it exposes children to (Plowman, Stephen & McPake, 2010).
Finally, the study findings were anticipated to act as a resource for other researchers and scholars who may, in the future, wish to carry out a study concerning ICTs and early childhood education.
1.10 Scope of the Study
1.10.1 Content Scope
This study concentrated on ICT infrastructure, ICT procedures and ICT Stakeholders and how they contribute to early childhood education because these are the most important variables that relate to early childhood education as ICT is a wide subject area.
1.10.2 Geographical Scope
The study was carried out in selected private pre-schools in Kampala because unlike government pre-schools, these have been reported to be the ones utilizing ICT in the teaching and learning of children. These include: Kampala Parents School (KPS) (Nursery) located in Nakawa division of the City Council of Kampala, on plot number 17-25, Saddler way Nagulu, Aga Khan Nursery School (AGA), which is located on Kololo Hill Drive in Kampala, Greenhill Nursery School (GNS), located at Mbogo road in Kibuli Kampala, and Lohana Academy (LA) (Nursery), located in Kololo, Kampala on Prince Charles drive, Plot 54.
1.10.3 Time Scope
The study focused on a period of five (5) years from 2012 to 2016. This was the period in which most of these pre-schools adopted and integrated ICT into their curriculum with the support of various government interventions like policies which include the National ICT policy and the education policies among others, sufficient enough to provide a basis for investigation (MoES, 2015).
1.11 Operational Definition of Terms and Concepts
Information and communication Technology (ICT): In this study, ICT was taken to mean sets of digital tools that is hardware and software, communication networks including the internet and various learning sites and environments, procedures which include teacher professional development and policies as well as stakeholders who are the children, administrators, teachers and parents who are responsible for the support of all developmental domains of children (Kalas, 2012).

ICT Infrastructure: In this study, ICT Infrastructure referred to hardware which are the physical components like computer sets and cameras, software which are the program instructions and communication networks which include the Internet, the World Wide Web and other learning sites required for the existence, operation and management of an IT environment to help in the education of children.

ICT Procedures: In this study, professional development and policies were taken as some of the procedures that support the education of children. Procedures refer to actions or things that can be done to support ICT integration in the teaching and learning of children and determine what needs to be done and when (Doyle, 2002).

ICT Stakeholders: In this study, children, parents, teachers and administrators were the main stakeholders. These are people who have an interest in ICT and who are impacted by its applications outcome (Doyle, 2002).
ICT Tools / Digital Tools:   In this study, ICT tools referred to a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store and manage information that were being used in the teaching and learning of children like computers, tablets, projectors monitors, digital cameras and other similar devices.
Early Childhood Education (ECE): In this study, early childhood education referred to activities and experiences that are intended to aid the holistic development of children in pre-schools from the age of 3 to 6 years.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This section highlighted the literature which was reviewed about the contribution of ICT to early childhood education linking each dimension of the independent variable to the dependent variable. It specifically presented a review of related literature on ICT infrastructure and early childhood education, ICT procedures and early childhood education and ICT stakeholders and early childhood education as described in the conceptual framework as well as a summary of the literature review. However, the first section of this chapter presented literature on Piaget’s theory of constructivism. 
2.1 Theoretical Review
2.1.1 Piaget’s Theory of Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning theory that states that children develop knowledge and form meaning basing on their experiences and interactions (Piaget, 1980).  It asserts that children acquire knowledge through three basic mechanisms that is; assimilation which is fitting a new experience into an existing mental structure (schema), accommodation which is revising an existing schema because of a new experience and equilibrium which is seeking cognitive stability through accommodation and assimilation. The theory also assumes that the child’s learning is based on the active performance rather than passive acquisition of knowledge. The role of the teacher is therefore to guide the learner rather than to transmit knowledge since the theory advocates for the creation of knowledge based on experiments and experiences fostering learning (Piaget, 1980). This educational theory is based on constructional aspects such as creating, discovery learning, project based learning, team work and doing things that broaden the child’s knowledge which in turn build on the child’s current level of cognitive functioning (Piaget, 1980; Catelynn & Ryan, 2012).
The use of technology (ICT) in learning has therefore been widely pointed out as a constructivist way of teaching. Using ICT in education as suggested by various scholars provides an opportunity to address each learner’s individual schema by providing many tools to pick from for example paint programs for artistic learners and problem solving software for mathematical learners. It allows the learner to be an active performer rather than a passive listener by being actively engaged in various activities that foster learning thereby reinforcing learning and making it enjoyable and motivational for the children. This creates new experiences and enables the learners to construct for themselves new knowledge (Catelynn & Ryan, 2012).
Piaget believed that knowledge is not the ability to remember teacher directed facts, but instead the ability to turn what one knows into a broader understanding of material and experiences presented. Despite the wide effect of Piaget’s constructivist theory as an instructional strategy on teaching methods in education, there are some criticisms that have been put forward for example;
Mayer (2004) argues that not all teaching techniques based on constructivism are adequate for all learners. Novice learners, she argues, do not possess the underlying schemas necessary for learning by doing and that some teaching techniques just require learners to be behaviorally and cognitively active during learning in which case teachers can still use guided practice.

Kirschner, Sweller and Clark (2006) also argue that constructivist teaching methods are unguided and more structured learning activities for learners should be used because they provide scaffolding for problem solving. They further argue that constructivist teaching methods are inefficient and ineffective and that learners need some level of guidance and support from their teachers for learning to be more effective and for the learners to be able to grasp.
However, in response to these criticisms, Piaget noted that constructivism does not dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert knowledge. It instead improves that role in order for teachers to help their learners to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. The constructivist teacher can provide ICT tools like computers that support problem solving and inquiry based learning activities with which learners formulate and test their hypotheses and ideas and draw their own conclusions (Piaget, 1980). Despite the criticisms, the above discussed theory is still greatly respected in the psychological community and has heavily influenced research into educational curriculum helping teachers and schools to evaluate their teaching methods and help children to become the most effective learners.
2.2 Related Literature
Despite the fact that ICT is increasingly being used in education, its contribution to learning has scarcely been evaluated and yields mixed results (World Bank, 2006). According to Vegas and Petrow (2008), multiple reasons exist for the difficulty in identifying the extent to which and how various variables empirically contribute to children’s learning. Factors influencing learning may be due to children, the school or the education system.
2.2.1 ICT Infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
 The use of ICT infrastructure in early institutions of learning promotes access to learning resources like websites, teaching software and the internet while improving communication between teachers and children (Kruger, 2010). Wajszczyk (2014) supported this argument when he noted that access to adequate and satisfactory ICT infrastructure is the most important factor that contributes to the successful and effective utilization of ICT in all subjects and for all learners. The utilization of interactive tools and online materials can enrich activities and motivate children.
Ukwueze and Ajala (2014) identify some of the ICT tools and materials that can be used in early childhood classrooms for instance touchscreens, televisions, video projectors, cell phones, computer units, electronic toys, electronic whiteboards among others including communication networks like the internet and websites. They add that, because ICT is naturally interactive, it has the capability to provide concrete and practical ways of constructively directing the children’s learning activities. They also note that information technology tools can help in individualization as well as differentiation in education and that it is possible to modify the presentation and content to the needs and experience of the children. 
2.2.1.1 Hardware and Software and Early Childhood Education.
Many scholars and practitioners agree that effectively using technology tools like computers, projectors and educational software can help build learning levels and improve children’s learning (Bordbar, 2010; Kalas, 2012). Hayes and Whitbread (2006) note that in order for information and communications technology to make a contribution in specific learning fields like literacy, mathematical understanding, creativity and problem solving, children should use ICT in ways that support the situation and context of use.
In this regard, Sife, Lwoga and Sanga (2007) found that electronic whiteboards, television and radio can improve teaching and learning of children as they show activities and processes that are not normally available to the learner. However, Cox, Webb, Abbot, Blakely, Beauchamp and Rhodes (2003) had found that the use of the electronic whiteboard had both positive and negative effects. They argued that it promoted debates and helped children to visualize difficult concepts but its use disregarded simulations and modeling which were more challenging for the children.
According to Linden, Banerjee, and Duflo (2007), learning can be enhanced by use of computers. The possibility that ICT can increase access to education and enhance learning processes expanded their profile in education among both developed and developing countries. They pointed out an example from India that supported the notion that computer-assisted learning programs were beneficial for children in developing countries. An NGO program was implemented that provided children from Vadodara in West India, with two hours of shared computer time to play educational games that enhanced mathematical and numerical skills. This produced positive results on children’s learning with an average increase in math scores of 0.37 standard deviations. The program was effective and it produced compatible results for both boys and girls.
Plomp, Anderson, Law and Quale (2009) note that the accessibility of computers and other ICT tools and online materials in pre-schools is essential to their integration into education which leads to high attainment in children’s performance. However, scholars like Nunez-Smith, Wolf, Huang, Emanuel and Gross (2008) had earlier found that the long term use of technologies especially for children caused physical, behavioral and mental problems like poor sleeping patterns, obesity, aggressive behaviors and attention disorders. Linebarger and Walker (2005) also had earlier noted that the passive use of technology for children leads to language delays and irregular sleep patterns so parents and teachers had to be careful when it came to technology use with children.
Kruger (2010) however notes that the integration of technology tools into children’s learning activities increases achievement when used as a means of enriching the lessons, helping the children to attain higher - order thinking. Similarly, Palaiologou (2016) additionally found that computer use with 4 and 5 year olds enhanced their learning experiences more especially their social interactions. Wajszczyk (2014) highlights the fact that technology devices used in early learning can be overwhelming so the choice of teaching aids should be carefully thought through and should be appropriate to the planned learning tasks. Taking into account how these ICT devices are utilized, he classified them into four categories that is;
Informative tools which provide information in various formats for instance text, graphics, sound and video, examples include digital cameras, computers, and internet sources. Such tools are said to encourage higher order thinking in children thus aiding their development. Situating tools that combine systems that place children in an environment in which they can experiment for instance virtual reality and simulating games. These are said to improve the children’s cognitive learning strategies. Constructive tools which are general purpose and are used to manipulate information, create new knowledge and visualize ones understanding for instance mind maps and social media. These are said to improve numeracy, literacy and critical thinking. Finally, communication tools which facilitate communication between children and teachers. Examples include chats, emails, and interactive whiteboards. These are said to improve the children’s writing skills and social participation (Wajsczky, 2014).
2.2.1.2 Communication Networks and Early Childhood Education
The 21st century has experienced an increase in internet use which has created opportunities to improve teaching and learning. According to MoES (2015), learning institutions can improve their teaching practices by integrating social learning methods like ICT supported learning using websites and online learning systems.
Sife et al. (2007) found that learning systems supported by ICT improved access to resources, interaction and reduction in costs of operation when it came to ICT integration into classroom practice. Similarly, Mazman and Usluel (2009) found that communication networks which are in line with social learning theories like constructivism and digital media emphasized active participation, team work and personalization which promoted the development of the children’s reading and narrative skills.  
Additionally, Koch-Weser, Bradshaw, Gualtieri and Gallagher (2010) found that communication technologies like the collaborative web engaged learners in a common space around shared interests as such sites are rich in applications that facilitate interaction and knowledge sharing. They also noted that learning platforms like mobile e-learning also provided away of learning using small, portable, computers such as tablets and smart phones.
Similarly, Spink, Danby, Mallan and Butler (2010) when investigating techno-literacy and web interactions found that children accessing the internet acquired a range of skills like multi-tasking, query creation, web browsing which improved their literacy and numerical skills. In relation to the above, Davidson (2012) also found that children accessing the internet improved their literacy skills especially through social interactions and utilizing web search engines as well as engaging in social media interactions.
However, Vandewater, Bickham and Lee (2006) earlier warned that spending a lot of time on the internet and other media makes the children less interactive and less creative when it comes to play. Schmidt, Kirkoriam, Lund and Anderson (2008) also state that children, when exposed to background television reduce the amount of time they play and when they do play their attention is reduced. Given the differing viewpoints from the different scholars, there was a literature gap in Uganda concerning the contribution of ICT infrastructure to early childhood education which this study sought to fill.
2.2.2 ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education
ICT procedures are essential and concern issues such as ICT plans , which can include ICT equipment standards and maintenance policies , staff development programs and policies, ICT as a teaching tool as well as children’s ability to use it (Wajszczky, 2014).
2.2.2.1 ICT Policies and Early Childhood Education
For a country to be successful, it should develop its education system by implementing robust, efficient and effective ICT policies (Yusuf & Afolabi, 2010). The most prominent professional association in charge of early learning, that is; the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) gives some regulations and guidance that can be followed by practitioners in charge of the education of children. These among others include the importance of helping children to develop through play, learning and being creative by using developmentally appropriate software (NAEYC, 2012). Rosen and Jauszewicz (2012) extended the model of developmentally appropriate practices which describe the teacher’s role in encouraging children to build their own knowledge, to developmentally appropriate technology use which encourages the children to use ICT collaboratively to extend and construct new knowledge. All these are sets of guidelines and policies for use in early childhood classrooms that have been instrumental in promoting the holistic development of children.
The UNESCO Institute of Statistics [UIS] (2014) highlights that policy makers, given their unique positions, are capable of bringing about change and that they should be aware that as far as the framework of formal commitments is concerned,  plans of implementing  ICT adoption in education can be in form of regulations and decrees, investment programs, strategic papers  and the like. It is therefore, important that educational authorities and governments take the process of policy formulation and implementation seriously for the integration of ICT into early childhood education to be successful. From their findings, the UIS (2014) found that countries that had formulated and implemented strict ICT policies in education like China and India had a well-developed education system with their teachers comfortable enough to integrate ICT into curriculum which had promoted the development and wellbeing of children in those countries.
The ministry of education in New Zealand (2016) noted some reasons to have policies regarding early childhood education when it mentioned that policies identified agreed procedures and processes that confirmed that important legislative requirements are met and ascertained those involved, helping them to have a shared and agreed understanding of processes such that they are consistent, appropriate and safe. It further stated the importance of developing policies in consultation with staff and parents to ensure that they are robust and realistic for implementation. Yusuf and Afolabi (2010) also note that policies and procedures make practitioners mindful of the safety concerns surrounding the children’s use of ICT such as inappropriate content and child privacy issues.
When it comes to Uganda, Farrell (2007) indicated in his study of ICT in education in Uganda that policy framework and implementation plans along with advocacy and leadership are some of the central features that influenced the integration and adoption of ICTs in education. However, Uganda Vision 2040 and the National planning Authority (2015) highlight the weak policy frame work that exits in Uganda to support ECE. They further note that despite the pre-primary and post primary Education Act of 2008 and the previous ECD policy of 2007, there is no sector policy that specifically addresses the provision of pre-primary education in the country nor is there a framework for inspection, support and supervision of pre-schools to ensure that they are well equipped. Given the importance of policy formulation in the education sector, this study sought to fill the literature gap that exists in Uganda concerning the influence ICT policies have on early childhood education.
2.2.2.2 Professional Development and Early Childhood Education
Several barriers to ICT adoption by teachers have been identified by various researchers. These mostly include the lack of knowledge and the required skills about the potential of ICT. MoES (2015) mentions in their report that among other things, irregular professional training was one of the ICT related challenges teachers faced in trying to adopt new technologies in early childhood learning. Ihmeideh (2009) also indicated in his study of Jordanian pre-schools that despite ICTs’ power in supporting the development of children, early childhood educators still struggled with using technology in their teaching practice which has been linked to a lack of software, time, funds and technology skills.
In addition, Bordbar (2010) found in his study that many of the teachers that had neutral or negative attitudes when integrating ICT in early childhood classrooms did not have the technical skills nor the knowledge that would have helped them to make informed decisions. Similarly, Zahilah and Zaki (2013) found that a lack of professional support deterred teachers with the most positive attitude that previously had a level of comfort and were willing to use ICT in their classrooms for teaching and learning.
Ihmeidah (2009) notes that operative professional development helps teachers to cultivate an understanding of ICT that connects with  their present pedagogical views and provides teachers with a chance to acquire and discover new ways of teaching in their pre-school classrooms. Likewise, Keengwe and Grace (2009) also note that appropriate professional development models are needed in order for teachers to have the capability of creating suitable strategies to integrate ICTs into their classroom practices which are in line with the constructivist’s pedagogical theories.
According to Martin, Strother, Beglau, Bates, Reitzes and Mcmillan Culp (2010), ICT professional development and the teachers’ self-efficacy caused positive teacher-student outcomes in the teaching and learning of children which improved their performance. In addition, the UIS (2015) recommended that appropriate teacher training and refresher courses were necessary in creating a teaching workforce which is motivated to use new technologies in their teaching practice following the perspective of the new curricula and pedagogies, as Kerckaert, Vanderline and Braak (2015) also found that effective training and professional development was a fundamental element in encouraging technology use that surpasses acquisition of basic ICT skills to  meet individual learning needs of children.
UNICEF(2012) highlights that the use of technology in education can enable a broader and equitable access to information which creates positive effects on learning outcomes but the act of simply providing equipment to schools is not likely to improve educational outcomes for children  unless it is coupled with teachers professional development and training programs. For this reason, this study sought to explore the influence of teacher professional development on early childhood education. 
2.2.3 ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
The department of education and early childhood development (2011) notes that stakeholder engagement is critical to the successful delivery of early childhood education and development in supporting functions such as contribution to policy and program development, high quality decision making for better services, easy creation of synergies between teachers, parents and administrators and encouraging unified and all-inclusive solutions to multipart policy issues. 
2.2.3.1 Teachers and Early Childhood Education
Teacher’s beliefs and confidence when using technology to teach affects their classroom practice and consequently, the children’s learning (Nikolopoulou & Gialamas, 2015). It is therefore the role of the teachers to adapt themselves, the children and the pedagogies to the new technologies and the possibilities it offers (Wajszczyk, 2014).
Cox et al. (2003) found that ICT benefits in learning hinge on the teachers selection and organization of the technology resources and how they are used and integrated with other activities in school classrooms. They further found that the use of ICT in classrooms is facilitated by the teachers’ competence in the subject which means that if teachers are very familiar with their subjects, it is easier for children to understand them which will create a positive impact on the children’s learning outcomes especially when challenged to think and question their understanding.
Additionally, they found that having the skills for organizing and simulating ICT-based activities, teachers helped the children to become individually and team wise more effective learners. However they noted that when teachers do not value the interactive nature of ICT which necessitates new approaches to lesson planning, curriculum and pedagogy, the use of technology in the classrooms can have minimal positive outcomes in the education of children. They further noted that using ICT with children such as using the interactive whiteboard allowed teachers to collect broad feedback from children as they could listen to their explanations and gain deeper insights into their learning processes and monitor progress. 
MoES (2015) notes that in order to improve the learning environment for children, teachers have to familiarize themselves with child learning and development theories and link them to the use of ICT. It adds that they should also acquaint themselves with the various ICT tools and what they can do. On top of understanding the ICT tools and their technical application, teachers also need to develop themselves using numerous teaching and learning theories in order to reach a more profound understanding (Lindsay, 2006).
However, Yelland (2006) warns that given the fact that children are digitally literate by the time they go to school, educators must be careful that their education system does not become outdated for the children they are now trying to teach. To this effect Kalas (2012) mentions that when the teachers take responsibility to critically consider proper forms of ICTs they employ in their practice, they promote creative play and expression of children both through the selective use of particular software applications and a range of different forms of ICT.
Wajszcyk (2014) also notes that when teachers use ICTs in pre-school classrooms, they encourage critical thinking skills, information literacy and support collaborative work which in turn prepares children to live in the 21st century. Teachers should therefore be able to recognize affordances of ICT, plan suitable activities, identify, group and confirm electronic data sources that should be used in early childhood education, as well as to react to children’s individual needs in the classroom (Wajszcyk, 2014). In the same way, Palaiologou (2016) suggested in her study that since children are digitally fluent at an early age, some before they even go to school, early years educators should re-examine the way children learn and the way in which the early year’s workforce organize their learning environments.
2.2.3.2 Parents and Early Childhood Education
In a study about Parental Involvement in Children’s Early Childhood Education, Siraj-Blatchford and Siraj-Blatchford (2006) found that children whose parents participated in the peer’s early education partnership program that involved the use of ICT made significantly greater progress in their learning. The study showed that the children especially the ones aged 3 to 5 progressed in their vocabulary, language comprehension, understanding of books and number concepts and exhibited a higher self-esteem in comparison to children of non-participating parents. They also found that children’s academic performance was enhanced when there was collaboration between the family and the teachers. They noted that shared experiences between adults and children especially parents, enhanced learning whether it was with computers or other ICT resources.
Machen, Wilson and Notar (2005)  report that improved parental involvement in the classroom benefited and improved the school community in general as parents and teachers worked as partners, making decision making easy as well as the administration process. To this effect Kalas (2010) highlighted some of the roles parents could play in early childhood education centers. These among others included; initiating or motivating the ECE center to start or extend the process of integrating ICT, equipping the center with particular hardware and software, supplying computer consumables, assisting  in hardware and software administration, approving educational programs and adopting rules and procedures for safe and productive use of ICT at home.
Similarly, Rutherford, Brown and Unsworth (2011) when examining digital natives found that parental role was significant in supporting children when using technology for learning purposes as it contributed to better language development amongst the children. Landry (2014) notes that it is of great importance to build a relationship with parents by involving them in their children’s educational transformation. She highlights that for children to develop social and cognitive skills necessary for later success in life, parents need to be supportive and responsive to their needs.  She indicated that young children’s acquisition of problem solving, language and social emotional skills is facilitated by interaction with their parents.
However, Wajszczky (2014) warns that with the introduction of ICT into schools, equally important is the discussion on topics such as ethics and integrity to avoid and prevent the negative effects of ICTs both on the teachers and the children as well as help to win the support of the parents. Strategies like workshops could be held with both parents and teachers to talk about matters concerning children and their safety and health, and discuss issues such as sustainable content, inappropriate conduct, displacement of other important learning and play activities, negative impact on both social and cognitive development as well as other issues that may emerge.
Parents are the first and most important teachers to their children and help their children’s brains grow through play and early learning activities. This can be through ICTs like children’s tablets, computers, and other digital tools that are suitable for children’s play.  The Ministry of Education of New Zealand (2006) stated that it is important for parents to know and understand what the child will learn at school so it is within their right to ask for the curriculum to see how best to help their child. The study conducted by the ministry shows that children learn best when what they are doing and learning at home is connected to what they are learning in school hence parents are encouraged to get more involved in their children’s early childhood education and share their skills with them.
2.2.3.3 Administrators and Early Childhood Education
In line with ICT, administrative support refers to the presence of encouraging ICT using role models such as the principal, and the presence of incentives for teachers to use technology (Moses, Bakar, Mahmud & Wong, 2012). Similarly in this study administrative support will refer to help and guidelines given by administrators in early childhood pre-schools and centers to aid in computer training and integration of ICT into curriculum.
Sife et al. (2003) notes that for ICT integration programs to be effective and sustainable, administrators themselves must be competent in the use of technology and they must have a broad understanding of the technical, curricula, administrative, financial and social dimensions of ICT use in education. In 2007 the authors reported that administrative support is critical to the successful integration of ICTs in the teaching and learning processes arguing that administrators can provide needed conditions such as foresee ICT policy creation and provide incentives and resources. Administrators therefore must increase the proportion of well trained teachers as ICT literate teachers are an essential element of enhanced human capacity development and a sign of good administration (Lim, 2007).
Watts-Taffe, Gwinn, Johnson and Horn (2003) found that teachers can act as catalysts for the integration of technology into classroom practice if given encouragement, equipment and necessary technological support from their institutions and administrators. In the same way, a study conducted by Lim (2007) found that inefficient administrative support for the effective use of ICT was a barrier to ICT growth in the schools. He suggested that administrative support can be provided to teachers by equipping them with technical skills on how to handle hardware and software in addition to providing them with necessary technical solutions to use.
Additionally, Albrini (2006) and Bingimlas (2009) found that a lack of administrative support made teachers reluctant to use ICT in the classroom and was a barrier to its integration into the educational curriculum. In the same way, Moses et al. (2008) found that the success of integrating ICT into the educational curriculum was dependent on the support provided by the school administrator. Several scholars have tried to relate administrative support to ICT usage in teaching and learning for example Lim (2007) found that teachers who received adequate ICT support from their administrators were more likely to use ICTs in their teaching practice and that administrators who learned computer skills gained a more positive attitude about technology and teaching and were more willing to support their teachers.
In a study about problems affecting teachers’ adoption of technology in classrooms, Munyantware (2006) reported that the perceived support from school administrators influenced the teachers’ adoption of technology decisions. The study reported that continuous support to teachers gave them confidence in using computers to teach. Yang and Huang (2008) also report that teachers who received support from their administrators had a high commitment to use ICT in the classroom. The study suggested that ICT adoption would increase if there was greater support from the management level through provision of infrastructure like computers and teaching software as well as technical support through training programs.
Chien, Wu and Hsu (2014) in a study concerning teachers’ beliefs in using educational technologies in classrooms found that many teachers shared beliefs that educational technologies could promote learning but they were reluctant to use computers because of insufficient support and resources provided by the administrators. Additionally, Wood, Specht, Willoughby and Mueller (2008) note that effective technology leadership, training and planning among teachers and institutional administrators, with commitment to enhancing teaching and learning using technologies, is necessary to rise above possible obstacles and proactively assess the benefits and the strengths that ICT could bring to early childhood classrooms.
2.2.3.4 Children and Early Childhood Education
As young children are constantly surrounded by ICT, they have the opportunity to experience and develop skills that will benefit them in their adult life.  Considering the use of ICT in early childhood education, careful consideration should be taken to make sure all the tools used are developmentally appropriate (Kalas, 2012).
In his report on the importance of ICT in early childhood education, Kalas (2012) reports that digital technologies have the potential to aid in the development of children’s literacy and numeracy skills. He adds that their use can enhance children’s communication skills acting as a stimulus of peer to peer and pupil to teacher discussion. Similarly, Salim, Muntanyi, Wesonga and Mukutu (2016) after conducting a study on monitoring and evaluation of Karibu Center computer program found that children using the computer program performed better that children that were not using the program and it helped them to develop ICT skills at an early age which improved the children’s achievement and self-confidence.  
Kaindio and Wagithunu (2014) note that despite the fact that some authors have expressed a view that ICT is not appropriate for young children’s cognitive, physical and emotional development; there is no clear evidence to support this claim.  They add that if used appropriately, ICT can be a useful tool for supporting children’s learning and developmental activities. They however warn that most practitioners should be aware of health and safety issues concerning the children’s use of ICTs. This includes being mindful to children’s exposure to inappropriate content and protection of children’s privacy.
According to Palailogou (2016), ICT use has the potential to provide a context for collaboration, co-operation and teamwork which creates positive learning experiences between children and adults. In her opinion, ICT can be used to support aspects of learning, including language development and the development of mathematical thinking skills in children. She additionally highlights that using ICT in the early years can foster development of communication skills among young children by making a rich contribution to children’s literacy development in the four interrelated areas of speaking, listening, reading and writing for example, ‘talking’ word processors support children’s experimentation as they play with language and offer them possibilities to compose and write without needing to have mastered the production of letters by hand. The use of ICT in the teaching and learning of young children is therefore perceived by many scholars as having a positive contribution to the children’s learning experiences.
2.2.4 Summary of Literature Review
Many scholars like Hayes and Whitebread (2006), Bordbar (2010), Kalas (2012), Davidson (2010) and many others agree that the use of ICT in early learning has a number of benefits such as improvement of the children’s literacy, numeracy and creative skills and if coupled with proper support from the various stakeholders and ICT procedures such as teacher training and ICT policy creation, helps the children to acquire problem solving skills and to attain higher -order thinking. However, scholars like Nunez-Smith et al. (2008) and Linebarger and Walker (2005) argue that the long term use of technologies in children leads to physical, behavioral and mental problems like poor sleeping patterns, obesity, aggressive behaviors, attention disorders, language delays and irregular sleep patterns. These differing and somewhat conflicting viewpoints of the scholars therefore leave a literature gap to be filled as to whether ICT should be introduced progressively in earlier stages of children’s education, especially in the context of developing countries like Uganda which was the focus of this study, to provide empirical evidence of the contribution of ICT to early childhood education in Uganda.

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter presented the research design , study population, sample size and selection, sampling techniques, data collection methods and instruments, data collection procedures, data management and analysis , validity and reliability , measurement of variables as well as ethical considerations.
3.1 Research Design
A research design is a conceptual structure or detailed outline in which research is conducted (Campbell & Stanley, 2015).This study employed a cross-sectional study design using both qualitative and quantitative approaches. As explained by Sekaran and Bougie (2016), a cross sectional study design allows for data collection and analysis from a sample of respondents at a specific point in time. Qualitative approaches were used because they provided in depth explanations to events while quantitative approaches were used because they provided data which can be transformed into usable statistics (Coolican 2017). When triangulated, these approaches helped to prevent prejudgments and bias. This study design was also employed because there was no need to manipulate the variables under study and it allowed for the different groups within the population to be compared as suggested by (Bernard, 2017). 
3.2 Study Population
The Nursery section of Kampala Parents School consisted of a total population of 155 comprising of 3 administrators, 6 pre-school teachers, 64 pre-school children and 82 pre-school parents. Agha Khan Nursery consisted of a total population of 145 comprising 4 administrators, 7 pre-school teachers, 57 pre-school children and 77 pre-school parents. Greenhill Nursery School consisted of a total population of 99 comprising of 2 administrators, 5 pre-school teachers, 38 pre-school children and 54 pre-school parents and finally, the nursery section of Lohana Academy consisted of total population of 98 comprising of 2 administrators, 4 pre-school teachers, 34 pre-school children and 58 pre-school parents. The study was carried out on a sample population of 321. These schools were chosen because of their increased adoption of ICT in the teaching and learning of children which provided a good assessment of its contribution to early childhood education.
3.3 Sample Size and Selection Technique 
A sample is a subset o f a population. It consists of a sufficient number of elements that when studied their findings can be generalized to the whole population (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). This process is known as sampling. The study selected up to 321 respondents based on Krejcie and Morgan Sampling Guidelines (see appendix VI) as shown in the table 3.1 below:

Table 3.1: Population Category and Sample size of Respondents
Population category	Population per school	Total population	Sample
size	Sampling technique	

Schools	
KPS	
AGA
	
GNS	
LA			
Simple random	
Administrators	3	4	2	2	11	11	Purposive	
Pre-school teachers	6	7	5	4	22	21	Simple random	
Pre-school Parents	82	77	54	58	271	160	Simple random	
Children 	64	57	38	34	193	129	Simple random	
Total	155	145	99	98	497	321		
Source: Kampala Parents school, Agha khan Nursery, Greenhill Nursery School and Lohana Academy records as of September, 2016 
As table 1 indicates, a sample of 321 out of 497 was considered based on Krejcie and Morgan’s (1980) sampling guidelines. As reflected in the table, purposive sampling was used to sample the administrators because they manage the schools and are responsible for ICT strategic policy making and implementation taken to have key information that was required for the study while simple random sampling was used to sample the pre-schools, children, teachers and parents whose perceptions were also very important as they were a larger population, each of them having an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study. 
3.4 Sampling Techniques
Sampling is a process by which entities of a sample are selected and is classified into either probability or non-probability sampling methods (Smith, 2015). The probability sampling technique that was employed in this study was simple random sampling because each member or item of the population had an equal chance of being selected as suggested by Coolican (2017). It was used to select the pre-schools, children, parents and the teachers who were considered during the study. The administrators were sampled using purposive sampling, a non-probability sampling technique because as explained by Leary (2016), it allows for samples to be selected basing on the researchers judgment, confident that they have key information that is representative of the entire population.
3.5 Data Collection Methods
The study employed a triangulation of both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. Yegidis, Weinbach and Myers (2017) explain that triangulation increases the validity of evaluation of research findings and helps to prevent prejudgments.  This study therefore collected data using three key methods: the questionnaire survey, observation and interview methods.
3.5.1 The Questionnaire Survey Method
The questionnaire is a carefully designed instrument for the collection of data in accordance with research questions and hypothesis (Patten & Newhart, 2017). This form of data collection method was chosen because according to Freeman (2017), it is less expensive and can be used to measure the breadth of the information sought. It can be applied to a large population in a short period of time and can offer accurate information with no bias. The questionnaire was developed in a way that the questions address the objectives of the study. The questions were closed ended to facilitate quick administration to the respondents, and involved using a set of printed questions in a logical order (Campbell & Stanley, 2015).
3.5.2 Interview
This comprised of unstructured interviews with administrators who were the key informants of the study. This gave the researcher a chance to establish rapport, probe, and get first hand and accurate information while gaining their cooperation as suggested by Coolican (2017). This method had the advantage of providing in depth data which was not readily got using the questionnaire method like views, opinions, perceptions and feelings (Leary, 2016).
3.5.3 Observation
This involves an observation of what people are doing or what events are taking place (Bernard, 2017).This method involved making observations of the ICT tools teachers were using in their classroom practice, and how children were interacting with them. According to Smith (2015), this method has the advantage of offering reduced bias that could exist with other methods of data collection and hence data collected was more objective and generally more accurate.
3.6 Data Collection Instruments
Data collection instruments were developed basing on the study objectives in relation to the study variables. Basically three research instruments were used in conducting the study.
3.6.1 Self-Administered Questionnaires
A set of questionnaires were distributed to the respondents. The questionnaires had closed ended questions and were divided in sections of background information, ICT infrastructure, ICT procedures, and ICT stakeholders and their relationship to early childhood education. Closed ended questions with  predetermined responses were measured against a five point Likert scale which was used to get quantifiable primary data from individual respondents on a scale of 5, strongly agree; 4, agree; 3, undecided; 2, disagree; 1 strongly disagree. This instrument was chosen because it covers a large number of respondents in a short period of time, it is less expensive, can be used to measure the breadth of the information sought and it is easier to ensure the respondents’ confidentiality as well as generate reliable data as the respondents are not intimidated by the researchers’ presence (Yegidis et al., 2017).
3.6.2 Interview Guide
An interview guide is a standard set of questions that the interviewer asks when interviewing. An interview schedule was structured along areas of ICT infrastructure, ICT procedures and ICT stakeholders and their relationship to early childhood education from which the researcher extracted qualitative data. The interview guide helped to establish rapport with the respondent, probe and get in depth data (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016).
3.6.3 Observation Checklist
An observation checklist was used to record observable items in a yes or no option for example ICT tools like computers, interactive whiteboards and other similar activities. Vital and additional information which might have been left out in the questionnaires and interviews was obtained through observation (Smith, 2015).
3.7 Validity and Reliability
3.7.1 Validity
Validity tells the appropriateness of the research instrument, that is, whether it is measuring what it is supposed to (Freeman, 2017). The instruments (Appendix I and III) were subjected to scrutiny by two experts who determined whether each item in the instrument was relevant to the study objectives. A content validity Index was then computed as follows: 
Table 3.2: Questionnaire ratings
	Items declared valid	Items declared not valid	Total 	
Rater 1				
ICT	20	5	25	
ECE	6	2	8	
Rater 2				
ICT	19	6	25	
ECE	6	2	8	
	51	15	66	

 CVI for ICT = Total number of items declared valid                  
                                 Total number of items
CVI = 20+19      = 39      =0.78
            25+25          50
The established CVI for ICT was 0.78 which indicated that the question items for ICT in the instruments were valid.

CVI for ECE = Total number of items declared valid                  
                                 Total number of items
CVI = 6+6      = 12   = 0.75
           8+8          16
The established CVI for ECE was 0.75 which indicated that the question items for ECE in the instruments were valid.
3.7.2 Reliability
Reliability measures whether the instrument is consistently measuring what it is supposed to measure (Patten & Newhart, 2017). The instruments were pretested twice for their reliability on a sample of 20 respondents from Kissyfur International Junior School to answer the questionnaires because it has similar characteristics to the pre-schools that were selected for the study. The results were then correlated in order to examine their stability over time. A Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient reliability test was also carried out using SPSS to measure whether the items were reliable and closely related as a group. The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for ICT was equal to 0.77 which shows that the question items on ICT were reliable. Early Childhood Education question items also had a score of 0.71 which implies that they were reliable as suggested by (Bernard, 2017).
Table 3.3: Reliability Statistics
Variables	Cronbach’s Alpha	Cronbach’s Alpha based on standardized items	N of items	
ICT	.770	.768	20	
ECE	.713	.710	6	

3.8 Data Management and Analysis
3.8.1 Analysis of Quantitative Data
Quantitative data was presented by way of descriptive statistics of frequencies and percentages, mean with standard deviations for each variables used in the study. Pearson’s correlation statistics were used to test the relationships (Campbell & Stanley, 2015). A positive correlation indicated a direct positive relationship between the variables while a negative correlation indicated an inverse negative relationship between the two variables. Regression analysis was used to determine the magnitude of the influence of ICT on early childhood education (Freeman, 2017).
3.8.2 Analysis of Qualitative Data
 Qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis where information gain through interviews was arranged in major themes of ICT infrastructure, procedures and stakeholders in related categories. These were then presented using narratives as presented by the interviewee (Patten & Newhart, 2017). Implications, conclusions, and inferences of qualitative information on the contribution of ICT to early childhood education were then drawn. Effort was also directed to cross examine the qualitative data with quantitative findings. Data that was collected through observations was analyzed under its subject matter of themes and sub themes (Bernard, 2017).
3.9 Measurement of variables
ICT and ECE were measured using an ordinal scale because as stated by Sekaran and Bougie (2016), an ordinal scale measures ordered categories of data. A five point likert scale was used to measure response categories regarding perceptions on ICT infrastructure, ICT policies and ICT stakeholders on a scale of 5, strongly agree; 4, agree; 3, undecided; 2, disagree; 1 strongly disagree as suggested by (Yegidis et al., 2017). In the same way, early childhood education was measured using the same likert scale regarding respondents’ perceptions on the Numeracy, Literacy, Verbal and Creativity skills of the children.
3.10 Ethical considerations
An introductory letter from Uganda Management Institute was used to secure permission from the relevant authorities in order to collect data. Consent of the respondents was then sought in order for them to be included in the study as recommended by (Neuman & Robson 2014). During and after data collection, Privacy was maintained by letting the respondents exercise autonomy and control over the information they were willing to share. Anonymity and confidentiality were also maintained by not disclosing the respondent’s names and personal details without consent and by treating the information they had disclosed with trust and not divulging it to others in ways that are inconsistent with the original understanding (Neuman & Robson, 2014). This was done through use of study codes as a way of encrypting identifiable data and securely storing data documents within locked locations (Smith, 2015).
Informed consent was sought from the parents of the children to allow them to participate in the study. A parental consent form was prepared and given to the parents prior to their children’s participation in the study.  Minor assent was also sought from the children to see whether they are willing to participate in the study. An assent form was prepared and discussed with the children regarding any questions they might have prior to participating in the study as advised by (McQuade & Sampat 2008). 
Furthermore, plagiarism was avoided by citing the relevant sources from which information necessary for research was extracted. Quoting and paraphrasing were also used to prevent plagiarism and ensure that data is presented as accurately as possible (Smith, 2015).

CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction
This study aimed at assessing the contribution of ICT to early childhood education. It focused on three independent variables that is; ICT infrastructure, ICT procedures and ICT stakeholders and how they contribute to and influence early childhood education. This chapter therefore presents the presentation, interpretation and analysis of the study findings in line with the objectives of the study. Explicitly, the chapter presents the respondent’s demographic characteristics followed by the descriptive characteristics, correlations and regression findings of the study.
4.1 Response rate
This study sampled 321 respondents. A total of 310 questionnaires were distributed to the respondents comprising of 21 questionnaires to the teachers, 160 questionnaires to the parents and 129 questionnaires to the children belonging to the nursery schools in which the study was conducted. These include Kampala Parent’s school, Lohana Academy, Greenhill Nursery and Agha khan Nursery school. A total of 196 questionnaires were returned giving a percentage of 63%. With regard to the qualitative study results, a total of 9 interviews were conducted with the administrators giving a percentage of 82% out of the 11 interviews that had been scheduled.  

Table 4.1: Response rate
	Response freq.	Response %	
Questionnaires returned	196	63	
Questionnaires not returned 	114	37	
Interviews conducted	9	82	
Interviews not conducted	2	18	
Total response 	205	100	

Ocal and Babin (2016) recommend a response rate above 60% for surveys and above 80 % for interviews. This shows that the study generated an acceptable response rate and the researcher believed that the views expressed in this report were representative of the target population.
4.2 Demographic Characteristics
These show the distribution of respondents in relation to the bio data given in the questionnaires that is, age, gender, qualification, and number of years as a parent or teacher in the school and are presented in the sub sections below.

4.2.1 Distribution of Respondents by Age
Table 4.2:  Respondents by Age (Teachers and Parents)	
	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	
Valid	20-25 yrs	9	9.2	9.2	9.2	
	26-30 yrs	24	24.5	24.5	33.7	
	31-35 yrs	45	45.9	45.9	79.6	
	36-40 yrs	16	16.3	16.3	95.9	
	41 yrs and above	4	4.1	4.1	100.0	
	Total 	98	100.0	100.0		
                 n = 98
The researcher peered into the age group of the respondents to find out whether they were exposed and mature enough to make informed decisions. Table 4.2 shows that majority of the respondents (teachers and parents) were between 31 to35 years of age giving a percentage of 45.9 %. This shows that they were mature enough to make informed decisions about the learning of children and with regards to teachers, at this age they were expected to have had sufficient exposure to ICT tools used in the teaching and learning of children. These were followed by those that were between 26 to 30 years of age giving a percentage of 24.5%, also an interesting characteristic that shows maturity in decision making concerning the learning of children. 16.3 % and 9.2 % were aged between 36 to 40 and 20 to 25 years of age respectively forming the minority of the respondents who also reflect a good strain of maturity in decision making. 

Table 4.3: Respondents by Age (Children)
	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	
Valid	2-4 years old	42	42.9	42.9	42.9	
	5-6 years old	56	57.1	57.1	100.0	
	Total	98	100.0	100.0		
                  n= 98
The age group of the children was examined to determine the rate at which children acquire ICT skills. As shown in table 4.3 above, majority of the children sampled were aged 5 to 6 years giving a percentage of 57.1% which gives a good measure of their skills acquired in the pre-school since they were expected to have been in the system for about 2 to 3 years already. These children were more expressive, easy to talk to and exhibited a level of confidence more than the younger children. 42.9 % of the rest of the children were aged between 2 to 4 years. These were presumed to be the newly enrolled children and those that had not been in pre-school for long whose skills were also very essential for the study.
4.2.2 Distribution of Respondents by Gender
Table 4.4: Respondents by Gender (Teachers and Parents)	
	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	
Valid	Male	36	36.7	37.5	37.5	
	Female	60	61.2	62.5	100.0	
	Total	96	98.0	100.0		
Missing	None-response	2	2.0			
Total	98	100.0			
The gender of the respondents was surveyed to find out which gender of teachers was mostly embracing early childhood education and which gender of parents was more involved in the children’s learning activities.  Table 4.4 above shows that most of the respondents (teachers and parents) were female totaling up to 60 and giving a percentage of 62.5% while the males were 36 giving a percentage of 37.5%.  These findings revealed that the early year’s workforce is still highly feminized and dominated by women which necessitate a call for more male pre-school practitioners. The findings also implied that female parents are more participatory in their children’s early years’ education than the males. 2 of the respondents did not give their gender.
Table 4.5: Respondents by Gender (Children)	
	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	
Valid	Boy	42	42.9	43.3	43.3	
	Girl	55	56.1	56.7	100.0	
	Total	97	99.0	100.0		
Missing	None-response	1	1.0			
Total	98	100.0			
n=98
The gender of the children was studied to find out whether girl child education initiatives in the country yielded results, and as shown in table 4.5 above, the female children were the majority with a total of 55 giving a percentage of 56.7% while the male children were 42 with a percentage of 43.3%. Although the difference is not so significant, this implied that girl child education and enrollment has increased as stated in the National Council of Higher Education (NCHE, 2014) report. 
4.2.3 Distribution of Respondents by Qualification
Table 4.6: Respondents by Qualification (Teachers and Parents)
	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	
Valid	Certificate	1	1.0	1.0	1.0	
	Diploma	6	6.1	6.1	7.1	
	Bachelor’s degree	74	75.5	75.5	82.7	
	Postgraduate (Masters/PhD)	17	17.3	17.3	100.0	
	Total	98	100.0	100.0		
              n=98
The researcher also peered into the qualification of the parents and teachers to determine their level of responsibility and ability to make informed decisions about the teaching and learning of children. Table 4.6 shows that most respondents had at least a bachelor’s degree totaling up to 74 and giving a percentage of 75.5%, followed by the 17 who had a postgraduate, masters or PhD giving a percentage of 17.3%. These were then followed by respondents with a diploma who were 6 giving a percentage of 6.1 % and finally 1 respondent with a certificate giving a percentage of 1.0%. These findings showed that most respondents were well educated and were able to make informed decisions regarding the learning process of the children. 

4.2.4 Distribution of Respondents by Number of Years Spent in the School
Table 4.7: Respondents by Number of Years Spent in the School	
	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	
Valid	2-3 yrs	52	53.1	53.1	53.1	
	4-6 yrs	40	40.8	40.8	93.9	
	Over 7 yrs	6	6.1	6.1	100.0	
	Total	98	100.0	100.0		
               n=98
The number of years spent in the school was surveyed to establish the level of responsibility and seniority regarding decisions having to do with the education of children. Table 4.7 shows that most respondents totaling up to 52 (teachers or parents) were in the schools for 2 to 3 years giving a percentage of 53.1%. These were followed by the 40 who were in the schools for 4 to 6 years giving a percentage of 40.8% and then the 6 who were in the schools for over 7 years giving a percentage of 6.1 %. These findings showed that most respondents were in the schools long enough to gain knowledge and seniority on the best way to handle and teach children for them to be the most effective learners. 
4.3 Empirical Findings 
The purpose of the study was to investigate the contribution of ICT to early childhood education in Kampala City, central Uganda. The following statistics present the opinions of respondents relating to the objectives of the study acquired from the questionnaires and interviews of key informants. The respondents had to respond to items on the questionnaires by ticking the option that best suited their opinion on a  five point Likert scale which  was measured on a scale of 5, strongly agree; 4, agree; 3, undecided; 2, disagree; 1 strongly disagree while the children had simpler questionnaires that tested their skills in a yes or no option.
4.3.1 Early Childhood Education
To begin with, the researcher carried out an analysis of early childhood education to clearly establish ICT’s contribution to it.
Table 4.8: Distribution of Respondents by perception on Early Childhood Education and ICT
No	Statements	SD	D	U	A	SA	
	Literacy						
1.	Early literacy instruction with the use of ICT provides children with developmentally appropriate experiences and social support that encourage early forms of reading and writing to flourish.  	0	0	0	38.8	61.2	
2.	Creative play with use of ICT is one of the most effective ways to make literacy activities meaningful and enjoyable for children	0	0	0	37.8	62.2	
	Creativity						
3.	The process of forming original ideas is enhanced by ICT through exploration and discovery	0	0	0	35.7	64.3	
4.	Creativity is promoted by allowing children to play computer games, watch educative programs on television and listen to sound recordings.	0	0	0	40.8	59.2	
	Numeracy						
5.	Knowledge of number concepts, development of logical thinking skills, analysis and problem solving skills are enhanced when children interact with ICT tools. 	0	0	0	37.8	62.2	
	Verbal skills						
6.	Early language skills, fluency and effective communication skills are promoted by use of ICT.	0	0	1.0	52.0	46.9	

The table 4.8 above showed the respondents perceptions on the various aspects of early childhood education namely literacy, creativity, numeracy and verbal skills that can be supported by ICT. A set of 6 statements were used to measure this variable.

As seen from the table 4.8 above, 61.2 % of the respondents strongly agreed to the notion that early literacy instruction with the use of ICT provided children with developmentally appropriate experiences and social support that encouraged early forms of reading and writing to flourish. 38.8% of the respondents also agreed to this statement.  This theme was further supported by an interview in which respondent A1 noted that: “I have noticed that children who learn to type are also good readers and know how to write. That’s why we encourage children to learn to type so that they can improve their reading and writing skills.” Respondent A2 also did note that: “ICT is a valuable tool that we use to enhance learning. We like to use sound recordings and audio programs especially to develop reading skills in children. This in a way also helps to develop their writing skills as well.”
 
One of the main findings from the interviews was the interest and conviction administrators had that ICT does indeed improve the children’s ability to read and write especially when children learn to type on a computer although they were limited by access.

Table 4.8 also revealed that creative play with the use of ICT was one of the most effective ways to make literacy activities meaningful and enjoyable for children. This statement was strongly agreed upon by 62.2 % of the respondents as the remaining 37.8% were also in agreement. This idea was reinforced by an interview conducted that revealed that children were more eager to learn and participate when the teachers used presentations, played videos or allowed them to use the computers. According to respondent A1; “Even the usually shy non-participating child when given the chance to use the computer will be inquisitive to play with it.” Respondent A3 also mentioned that: “Children are more aware of sounds of language when engaged in interactive activities like playing computer games, listening to stories, poems and songs on television and DVDs which help them to develop reading skills.” These study findings showed that children do enjoy participating in literacy activities fostering learning with the use of ICT. 

The table 4.8 further revealed that the process of forming original ideas is enhanced by ICT through exploration and discovery. 64.3% of the respondents strongly agreed to this statement and the remaining 35.7% also agreed. Following a discussion with the administrators, respondent A4 supported this creativity theme when he noted that: “Creativity is a feature that needs to be encouraged way from childhood and this aspect of learning can be supported very well with the use of ICT.”  He went ahead to say that: “We invest heavily in ICT tools that encourage creativity and thinking skills like logical games on children’s tablets, electronic toys and the like not because we simply want children to play but because by doing so we are helping them to develop their own ideas and become innovative because such skills can help them in the future.” These study findings revealed that the respondents perceived creativity as a skill that can be enhanced by the use of ICTs.

The table 4.8 additionally revealed that creativity is promoted by allowing children to play computer games, watch educative programs on television and listen to sound recordings as seen from the 59.2% of the respondents who strongly agreed and the 40.8%  who agreed. This idea as agreed upon by the respondents was further supported by interviews in which respondent A3 noted that: “When used appropriately as a learning tool, ICT provides many opportunities for children to develop their creative skills. For example, paint programs allow them to think and to come up with ideas of their own on what they want to do and how to achieve it.” However some of the respondents argued that children are good at playing games, but when used as a learning tool they can easily get bored.

From the table 4.8, knowledge of number concepts, development of logical thinking skills, analysis and problem solving skills are enhanced when children interact with ICT tools. 62.2% of the respondents strongly agreed and the remaining 37.8 % also agreed to this statement. Interviews with administrators confirmed this numeracy theme when respondent A5 stated that: “Children’s knowledge of story sums, number operations, shapes, data and measure are enhanced when they interact with ICT in a learning environment. According to respondent A4; 
“There are ICT tools specifically designed to enhance numeracy skills in children for example children’s tablets come with some of these programs.” These study findings also revealed that numeracy was perceived by the respondents as a skill that can be very well enhanced by the use of ICT.

Table 4.8 finally showed that early language skills, fluency and effective communication skills are promoted by use of ICT as seen from the 46.9% of the respondents who strongly agreed and the 52.0 %  who agreed to this statement. There was however a 1.0 % of the respondents who were undecided as to whether this was true. Following interviews with the administrators, it was revealed by respondent A3 that: “Listening to audio stories and watching television helps to improve the children’s vocabulary and in away helps them to express themselves better.” Respondent A9 also stated that: “Children who are digitally fluent at an early age exhibit a level of confidence than children who are not, and that is why we encourage the use of ICTs and we create time in which children can watch educative programs on television.”

The above study findings revealed that respondents believe that different aspects of early childhood education like numeracy, literacy, verbal skills and creativity are widely being supported by the use of ICT.

To further assess whether ICT does support the different aspects of early childhood education, a survey was carried out among children of the different pre-schools. The children were subjected to a numeracy, creativity, verbal and literacy test with regard to the use of ICT and the results are presented below:
Table 4.9: Distribution of Pupils’ Scores on the Survey Regarding their Skills
No	Statements	No	Yes	Some	
	Literacy				
1.	Sound fluency, phoneme segmentation fluency	0	5.1	94.9	
	Verbal 				
2.	Can pronounce all the words and expressions	0	86.3	13.7	
	Numeracy				
3.	Problem solving (story sums)	32.7	67.3	0	
4.	Number concepts , operations	27.5	72.5	0	
5.	Shapes & data 	2.0	98.0	0	
	Creativity				
6.	Draw	55.1	44.9	0	
7.	Paint	32.7	67.3	0	
8.	Play games	0	100.0	0	
9.	Listen to music	2.0	98.0	0	
10.	Watch DVDs	1.0	99.0	0	
11.	Learn	2.0	98.0	0	
12.	Listen to stories	22.6	77.4	0	

Table 4.9 showed that majority of the children were familiar with technology and were able to use computerized tools  to draw, paint, play games, listen to music, watch DVDs, learn and listen to stories as seen from the 44.9%, 67.3%, 100%, 98.0%,99.0%,98.0%, and the 77.4% who were reported as those who could do so respectively. Results from observations also confirmed that most children were actively carrying out these activities especially during their creative classes. A few children who were reported as those who could not perform the above named activities were those who were fresh entrants into pre-school and it can be said that they had not yet acquired some of the skills. These study results revealed that children in these pre-schools have creative skills which help in their intellectual and cognitive development processes enabling them to be better prepared to take on active roles in the future.

Considering the study results from the literacy and verbal sections, table 4.9 revealed that 94.9% of the children could read most of the words given to them in the paragraph and a remaining 5.1% also read all the words. 86.3% came up with correct pronunciations and expressions while 13.7% did so with some limited assistance. Results from observations showed that most children had the ability to recognize and produce the sounds in the presented words in less than 3 minutes. They were able to segment phoneme words and manipulate the sounds in all the spoken words with limited assistance. These study results showed that these children were very literate which is a good predictor of later reading achievement. 

Table 4.9 further showed that a majority 67.3% had mustered how to solve story sums which was a good predictor of their problem solving skills in future .While a remaining 32.7 % failed to pass this test, it can be attributed to that fact that they were younger and had not yet mustered the skill. Regarding number concepts and operations, a majority 72.5% could add, subtract, multiply and recognize bigger, smaller, even and odd numbers as opposed to the remaining 27.5%. This was a good indicator of the development of numeracy skills in children. With regard to shapes and data, most children (98.0%) could identify the different shapes of objects, and could tell the different months of the year. Following results from observations, the 2.0% who failed to do so were fresh entrants.

These study results revealed that these children were well prepared and had more than achieved the essential skills required for their entry into primary school. Results from interviews revealed that much as children were taught these skills at school, ICT was still a supportive element in their gaining of these skills. According to respondent A5: “Most of these children come to school when they already know their way about tablets, computers, which makes our work easier but can also be a challenge because we have to keep ahead of them. We know that appropriate technology when used for learning can be a big support factor in holistically developing a whole lot of skills in children.”  
4.3.2 ICT Infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
The first specific objective of the study was to establish the contribution of ICT infrastructure to early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools. This independent variable was analyzed in terms of hardware, software and communication networks.

Table 4.10: Distribution of Respondents by Perception on the Contribution of ICT Infrastructure to Early Childhood Education 
No	Statements	SD	D	U	A	SA	
	ICT hardware 						
1.	The use computers, tablets, interactive whiteboards and televisions in the classroom increases the children’s motivation and focus in learning.	0	0	1.0	34.7	64.3	
2.	The use of tablets, electronic toys and other digital tools in the classroom improves the children’s academic performance	0	0	0	82.7	17.3	
3.	The use of ICT digital tools in the classroom lowers the concentration span of children, promotes aggressive behaviors and leads to language delays	6.1	57.1	20.4	16.3	0	
	ICT software						
4.	Educational software programs improve children’s creativity and innovative skills
	0	1.0	0	17.3	81.6	
5.	 Educational software programs promote play make learning enjoyable for children 	0	0	2.0	58.2	39.8	
	ICT communication networks						
6.	The use of the internet in the classroom increases the children’s access to learning materials present on educational websites	0	0	0	13.3	86.7	
7.	The use of internet in the classroom improves the children’s collaboration and social skills and supports exploration of new ideas.	0	0	0	25.5	74.5	

Table 4.10 showed that 64.3 % of the respondents strongly agreed to computers, tablets, televisions and interactive whiteboards increasing the children’s motivation and focus in learning. These were followed by the 34.7% who agreed and about 1.0% who were undecided as to whether the statement was true.  This projected a positive response about the contribution of these computerized tools to early childhood education.
 
During data collection, it was observed that all the pre-schools had at least a sufficient set of hardware tools that they were using to teach the children. Results from interviews supported this theme when respondent A7 stated that: “These tools give children the opportunity to work together, interact, and learn while providing a chance for simulating thinking which in turn helps the children to develop critical thinking and analysis skills.” These study findings revealed that the respondents perceived ICT tools as instruments that had the capability of increasing the children’s focus and motivation in learning.

Table 4.10 showed responses as to whether the use of different sets of digital tools in the classrooms improved the children’s academic performance as follows; At least 17.3 % of the respondents agreed and a majority 82.7 % strongly agreed to this statement. In support of this idea, respondent A6 mentioned that: “It is our role to monitor the progress of the children’s performance and much as we teach them, we believe ICT does a good job of supporting their learning activities and this helps them perform even better.” These study findings revealed that the respondents were in support of the use of ICT in the pre-school classrooms as they believed it improved the children’s academic performance.

Table 4.10 also showed that 57.1% of the respondents strongly disagreed to ICT tools lowering the concentration span of the children, promoting aggressive behaviors and leading to language delays. About 6.1 % disagreed while 20.4% were unsure. However there were respondents that agreed to this statement amounting up to 16.3 %. Following results from interviews, respondent A8 noted that: “Everything when used in excess has its own disadvantages. However, here we specifically use ICT tools to aid the learning of children and so far we have not recorded any negative effects.” These study findings showed that much as many teachers and parents did not think that ICT negatively influenced their children, there is a minority population that believed ICT should not be used with children due to its negative effects. Furthermore there was a section of the population that was not sure if ICT should actually be used in early stages of children’s education.

The table 4.10 further showed that educational software programs improved children’s creativity and innovative skills as seen from the 81.6% of the respondents who strongly agreed and the 17.3%  who agreed to the statement. There was also a minority 1.0 percentage response of those who disagreed with this statement. In the same way, 58.2% agreed that these educational software programs promote play and make learning enjoyable for children. 39.8% of the respondents strongly agreed, while a minority 2.0% were undecided about this statement.  These study results are supported by data from the interviews in which respondent A2 revealed that: “Teaching and learning software is instrumental in teaching children how to count, subtract, add and at the same time help in expanding their vocabulary. This way, children are exposed and their creativity skills are enhanced.” These study findings showed that majority of respondents viewed educational software programs as having a positive effect to the children’s learning activities.
 
Finally, results from the table 4.10 further showed that the use of the internet in the classroom increased the children’s access to learning materials present on educational websites. 86.7% of the respondents strongly agreed to this statement and the 13.3% were also in agreement. In the same way, 74.5% strongly agreed that the use of internet in the classroom improved the children’s collaboration and social skills and supported exploration of new ideas. 25.5% of the respondents also agreed to this statement. Following a discussion with the administrators, respondent A5 noted that: “The use of the internet to access learning materials is encouraged although not readily available to the teachers.” Observation results also revealed that there was limited internet connectivity in various pre-schools. Although limited by access, respondents still perceived the use of the internet as instrumental to the children’s education outcomes.

The study findings for this objective therefore showed that most of the respondents believed that ICT infrastructure has different ways in which it contributes to early childhood education like improving the children’s motivation and focus, academic performance, creativity and innovative skills despite the different challenges that were cited like a lack of internet connection. A minority group of the respondents were not sure of its contribution while just a few were convinced that it has no contribution at all.

A Pearson correlation was done using the output from the teacher’s questionnaires to test the relationship between ICT infrastructure and early childhood education and the results are presented below:
Table 4.11: Correlation between ICT Infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
	ICT Infrastructure	Early Childhood Education	
ICT Infrastructure	Pearson Correlation	1	.684**	
	Sig. (2-tailed)		.005	
	N	15	15	
Early Childhood Education	Pearson Correlation	.684**	1	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.005		
	N	15	15	
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The results from the correlation table 4.11 indicated that there was a positive linear relationship between ICT infrastructure and early childhood education given by the positive value of the computed correlation index (.684**). The p-value (.005) being less than 0.01 level of significance alpha showed that the results were statistically significant. This implied that ICT infrastructure plays a significantly positive role in early childhood education hence accepting the stated hypothesis that “ICT infrastructure has a positive significant contribution to early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools”.
4.3.3 ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education
The second specific objective of the study was to examine the influence of ICT procedures on early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools. This independent variable was analyzed in terms of professional development and ICT policies.
Table 4.12: Distribution of Respondents by Perception about the Influence of ICT Procedures on Early Childhood Education
No	Statements	SD	D	U	A	SA	
	ICT Professional Development						
1.		ICT Professional development programs provide me with opportunities to learn and explore new ways of teaching. 	0	0	1.0	27.6	71.4	
2.		ICT training programs provide me with opportunities to handle the challenges that ICT brings and gain expertise	0	0	2.0	39.8	58.2	
3.		The ICT training has helped me make informed decisions about teaching
	0	0	1.0	34.7	64.3	

	ICT Policies						
4.	There exists an ICT policy in my school that meets the needs of both educators and children as well as the legislative requirements	0	9.2	72.4	15.3	3.1	
5.	The ICT policies support teacher training and professional development	0	0	13.3	66.7	20.0	
6.	The presence of an ICT policy in the school has influenced my adoption of ICT in the classroom	5.1	76.5	2.0	15.3	1.0	

Results from table 4.12 showed that many of the respondents (71.4%) strongly agreed that ICT professional development programs provided them with opportunities to learn and explore new ways of teaching. 27.6 % agreed to this statement while 1.0% were undecided. Results from interviews supported this theme when respondent A9 noted that: “The knowledge and experience of our teachers is an important factor and we believe that training them especially in ICT skills is very crucial to our success.” However, respondent A6 also did state that: “The opportunity for ICT training is available to teachers but however it is not mandatory and depends on the areas in which the teachers choose to develop themselves further.” This revealed that a majority of the respondents were open to the idea of ICT training and believed that it helped them to improve their teaching skills.
The table 4.12 further showed that 58.2% of the respondents strongly agreed that ICT training programs provided them with opportunities to handle the challenges that ICT brings and helped them to gain expertise. 39.8% of the respondents agreed while 2.0% were undecided. The table 4.12 additionally revealed that 64.3% of the respondents strongly agreed that ICT training helped them make informed decisions about teaching with 34.7% agreeing and 1.0 % staying undecided. These ideas were supported by data from interviews when respondent A8 stated that: “Technology keeps changing and we want children to get the best out of their education. In case we procure new ICT tools, it is our duty to make sure that the teachers are comfortable enough to use them when teaching the children.” 
These study findings revealed that ICT training helped teachers to reflect on their views and ideas about the children’s learning and development so that they can help them in the best way possible. They also revealed that as long as teachers were trained, they were willing to take on any challenges brought about by ICT.
With regard to ICT policies, it was clear that a majority 72.4% of the respondents were not sure whether there existed an ICT policy in their pre-school. 9.2% were convinced that their pre-schools did not own an ICT policy while 15.3% and 3.1% did agree and strongly agree respectively to owning an ICT policy in the pre-school. In support of this study theme, respondent A4 stated that: “We do not own a specific ICT policy but we do have a general school policy that has a section governing the use of ICT.” This study finding revealed that ICT policies have not been given much attention and there is a lack of awareness concerning their use in the pre-schools. 
The table 4.12 additionally showed that although not sure whether their schools owned ICT policies, many respondents (66.7%) believed that ICT policies supported teacher training and professional development. While 13.3% of the respondents were undecided, 20.0 % agreed to this statement. Furthermore, table 4.12 showed that the majority 76.5% of the respondents disagreed to ICT policies influencing their adoption of ICT in the classroom followed by the 15.3% who actually agreed. These were then followed by the 5.1% who strongly disagreed, 2.0 % who were undecided and the 1.0% who strongly agreed. These study findings revealed that ICT policies were not the main influencing factor as to why teachers were adopting ICT in the teaching and learning of children. Following a discussion with the administrators, it was revealed that most pre-schools owned a general school policy that had a section governing the use of ICT in the classrooms although it was clear that most teachers did not pay attention to it.
A Pearson correlation was done using the output from the teacher’s questionnaires to test the relationship between ICT procedures and early childhood education and the results are presented below:
Table 4.13: Correlation between ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education	
	ICT Procedures	Early Childhood Education	
ICT Procedures	Pearson Correlation	1	.502	
	Sig. (2-tailed)		.008	
	N	15	15	
Early Childhood Education	Pearson Correlation	.502	1	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.008		
	N	15	15	

The results from the correlation table 4.13 indicated that there was a positive linear relationship between ICT procedures and early childhood education given by the positive value of the computed correlation index (.502). The p-value (.008) being less than 0.01 level of significance alpha showed that the results were statistically significant. This implied that ICT procedures play a significantly positive role in early childhood education hence accepting the stated hypothesis that “ICT procedures have a positive significant influence on early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools.”
4.3.4 ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
The third specific objective of the study was to examine the influence of ICT stakeholders on early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools. This independent variable was analyzed in terms of parents, teachers, and administrators.

Table 4.14: Distribution of Respondents by Perception about the Influence of ICT Stakeholders on Early Childhood Education
No	Statements	SD	D	U	A	SA	
	Teachers						
1.	I take time to select ICT tools that will best benefit the children’s learning	0	0	6.7	53.3	40.0	
2.	I use ICT to organize and assess children’s learning activities helping to them develop in the field of technology	0	0	6.7	60.0	33.3	
3.	ICT enables me to gather extensive feedback from children by listening to their explanations of their projects	0	0	13.3	66.7	20.0	
	Parents						

4.	

Pre-school ICT projects are a way of strengthening parental involvement in their children’s education	0	0		73.3	26.7	
5.	Collaborating with parents about their children’s ICT education enhances the children’s self-esteem while improving their academic performance	0	0	6.7	66.7	26.7	
	Administrators						
6.	Administrative support  leads to the successful integration of ICT in the classroom	0	0	0	13.3	86.7	
7.	Administrative support influences my adoption of technology use in the classroom	0	0	0	93.3	6.7	

As seen from the table 4.14 above, most teachers (53.3%) agreed to taking time to select ICT tools that best benefit the children’s learning. 40.0% strongly agreed while 6.7% were undecided. 60.0 % also agreed to using ICT for organizing and assessing the children’s learning activities helping them develop in the field of technology. 33.3% strongly agreed while 6.7% were still undecided.  These study findings revealed that most teachers have a positive attitude towards the use of ICT both for their lesson preparations and in the teaching of children. This theme was further supported by interviews in which respondent A9 mentioned that: “Teachers always give me ideas of what ICT tools they need to accomplish the constructive learning of children and I am always open to their ideas.”
 
The table 4.14 also showed that teachers use ICT to gather extensive feedback from children by listening to their explanations of the projects they do as seen from the 66.7% who agreed, 20.0% who strongly agreed but the 13.3 % were undecided. This idea was supported by respondent A6 who mentioned that: “When a child is given a project to work on, he also has to make sure he explains exactly what it is about and how he accomplished it. In this way, he is able to think hard and i am able to discern how to help him.” This study finding revealed that ICT can be used as a tool to encourage logical and creative thinking abilities in children which enhance their cognitive development processes.

The table 4.14 further showed that most teachers use these ICT projects to strengthen parental involvement in their children’s education. This is seen from the 73.3% who agreed and the 26.7% who strongly agreed. Results from interviews supported this theme when Respondent A9 mentioned that: “Teachers give children ICT projects that they can take home to be done with the help of their parents and this helps the parents to be more involved in their children’s education.” This leads to collaboration with parents about their children’s ICT education that helps to enhance the children’s self-esteem while improving their academic performance, as agreed upon by 66.7% of the respondents, 26.7% who strongly agreed while the 6.7% were undecided. These study findings revealed that ICT can be used by teachers as a support element to encourage parental involvement which is crucial to early childhood education. 
Regarding perceptions on administrators, the study findings showed that most respondents (86.7%) strongly agreed that administrative support lead to the successful integration of ICT in the classroom. 13.3% of the respondents were also in agreement. Furthermore, the table revealed that 93.3 % of the respondents agreed to administrative support influencing their adoption of technology in the classroom and this opinion was shared by the 6.7% who also strongly agreed. These findings suggested that administrative support was a very essential factor in encouraging the use ICT to support early childhood education. These ideas were further supported by interviews in which respondent A9 mentioned that: “We try to support teachers the best way we can ranging from training, provision of tools, equipment and so on because we know we shall get the best results when our teachers are well equipped.”
A Pearson correlation was done using the output from the teacher’s questionnaires to test the relationship between ICT stakeholders and early childhood education and the results are presented below:
Table 4.15: Correlation between ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
	ICT Stakeholders	Early Childhood Education	
ICT Stakeholders	Pearson Correlation	1	.847**	
	Sig. (2-tailed)		.000	
	N	15	15	
Early Childhood Education	Pearson Correlation	.847**	1	
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000		
	N	15	15	
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The results from the correlation table 4.15 indicated that there was a positive linear relationship between ICT stakeholders and early childhood education given by the positive value of the computed correlation index (.847**). The p-value (.000) being less than 0.01 level of significance alpha showed that the results were statistically significant. This implied that ICT stakeholders play a significantly positive role in early childhood education hence accepting the stated hypothesis that “ICT stakeholders have a positive significant influence on early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools.”
4.4 Multiple Regression
 A multiple regression analysis was carried out to determine the magnitude of the influence of ICT on early childhood education and which among the dimensions of the independent variable was the most significant predictor of the variance in early childhood education in Kampala private pre-schools.

Table 4.16: Model Summary
Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate	
1	.872a	.761	.695	.146	
a.	Predictors: (Constant), ICT Stakeholders, ICT Procedures, ICT Infrastructure

From the table 4.16 above, about 69.5% of the total variability in early childhood education is explained by ICT infrastructure, ICT procedures and ICT stakeholders. The remaining 30.5% is explained by other factors.

Table 4.17: ANOVAa	
Model	Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.	
1	Regression	.741	3	.247	11.647	.001b	
	Residual	.233	11	.021			
	Total	.974	14				
a.	Dependent Variable: Early Childhood Education
	
The null hypothesis for the F test in the ANOVA analysis is that the model has no explanatory power. From table 4.17 above, the p-value 0.001 is less than 0.01 level of significance therefore we reject the null hypothesis that the model has no explanatory power and accept the alternative hypothesis that ICT infrastructure, ICT procedures and ICT stakeholders can predict early childhood education. 
Table 4.18: Coefficientsa
     Model	Unstandardized 
Coefficients	Standardized Coefficients	t	Sig.	
	B	Std. Error	Beta			
      1	(Constant)	.776	.320		2.426	.017	
	ICT Infrastructure	.179	.085	.220	2.993	.039	
	ICT Procedures	.161	.078	.206	2.081	.040	
	ICT Stakeholders	.353	.086	.350	4.103	.000	
a.	Dependent Variable: Early Childhood Education
From the table 4.18 above, ICT stakeholders was the single highest predictor of the variance in early childhood education with a B value = 0.353, t value = 4.103 and p value=0.000. The model therefore predicts that for every 1 unit increase in the support of ICT stakeholders, the value of early childhood education may increase up to 353 times holding ICT infrastructure and ICT procedures constant. The p value being less than 0.01 means that ICT stakeholders account for a statistically significant unique variance in early childhood education.
This was followed by ICT infrastructure with a B value = 0.179, t value= 2.993 and p value= 0.039. The model therefore predicts that for every one unit increase in ICT infrastructure, the value of early child education may increase up to 179 times holding ICT stakeholders and ICT procedures constant. The p value being less than 0.05 means that ICT infrastructure accounts for a statistically significant unique variance in early childhood education.
 Lastly, ICT procedures scored a B value = 0.161, t value = 2.081, and a p value = 0.040. The model therefore predicts that for every one unit increase in ICT procedures, the value of early childhood education may increase up to 161 times holding ICT stakeholders and ICT infrastructure constant. The p value being less than 0.05 means that ICT procedures account for a statistically significant unique variance in early childhood education.

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction
This study was carried to investigate the contribution of ICT to early childhood education in Uganda. This chapter presents a summary of the findings in relation to the research objectives, a discussion of these findings, conclusion and recommendations.
5.1 Summary of the Study Findings
5.1.1 ICT Infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
The study results indicated that there was a positive significant contribution of ICT infrastructure to early childhood education given by (r=0.684** and P=0.005<0.01). Findings from the survey and interviews confirmed that most respondents believed that the use of ICT hardware tools like computers, tablets, electronic whiteboards and other computerized tools including software programs like paint and communication networks like the internet enhanced the children’s reading and writing skills, vocabulary, communication skills, innovation and creativity skills as well as their numeracy skills.
5.1.2 ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education
The study findings indicated that there was a positive significant influence of ICT procedures on early childhood education given by (r=0.502 and p=0.008<0.01). Findings from the survey and interviews revealed that professional development programs given to teachers did help them to learn and explore new ways of teaching and helped them to handle challenges brought about by ICT use. However, study findings about ICT policies showed that they were not given much attention and much as teachers believed that such policies would support them, they were not the main influencing factor as to why they had adopted the use of ICT in the teaching and learning of children. 
5.1.3 ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
The results from the study showed that there was a positive significant influence of ICT stakeholders on early childhood education given by (r=.847**and p=0.00<0.01). Findings from the survey and interviews revealed that early childhood education prospered much on the role of the teacher, parents and administrative support without which the use of ICT in the teaching and learning of children would not be possible and children would miss out on the benefits.
5.2 Discussion of the Study Findings
5.2.1 ICT infrastructure and Early Childhood Education 
The study found out that ICT infrastructure had a positive significant contribution to early childhood education in Kampala pre-schools. The study therefore inferred that any efforts directed towards the implementation and deployment of ICT infrastructure tools like electronic whiteboards, computers, electronic toys, children’s tablets, televisions, the internet and other similar tools and devices would improve the children’s academic performance, motivation and focus in learning, make learning enjoyable for children, enhance the children’s’ vocabulary, communication, numeracy, literacy and creativity and innovation skills. 
Although most respondents agreed that the use of the internet improved the children’s collaboration and social skills, results from observation showed that most pre-schools had limited or no internet connection at all. This may be a constraining factor for access to learning resources because in most instances, the internet connection was limited to the administrative sections of the school although through interviews, some administrators revealed that they were in the process of extending the internet connection to other departments of the pre-schools.
The study findings are supported by Mazman and Usluel (2009) who stated that communication networks which are in line with social learning theories like constructivism and digital media emphasized active participation, team work and personalization which promoted the development of the children’s reading and narrative skills. Kruger (2010) supported these study findings when he noted that the use of communication networks in early institutions of learning promoted access to learning resources like websites, teaching software and the internet while improving communication between teachers and children. 
These study findings are in line with Jean Piaget’s theory of constructivism that asserts that children produce knowledge and form meaning based upon their experiences and interactions and that the child’s learning is based on active performance rather than the passive acquisition of knowledge (Piaget, 1980). Results from observation and interviews revealed that children’s interaction with ICT tools offered children the opportunity to engage in several activities that provided for a wealth of experiences such as playing games, team work, and interacting with different digital tools that fostered creative learning which helped them to generate their own knowledge and skills. This study therefore affirms that ICT infrastructure does contribute positively and significantly in various ways discussed above to early childhood education.
5.2.2 ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education 
The study further found out that ICT procedures had a positive significant influence on early childhood education implying that ICT professional development programs and ICT policies were support agents to early childhood education. The teachers believed that ICT training programs provided them with the opportunity to learn and explore new ways of teaching, handle challenges brought about by ICT and also helped them to make informed decisions about the teaching and learning of children. Administrators were also positive about professional development programs for teachers when they stated that the knowledge and experience of the teachers was an important factor and that training them especially in ICT skills was very crucial to their success. 
However, most of teachers were unaware of the presence of ICT policies in their institutions which implies a constraining factor in the effective implementation of ICT in the teaching and learning of children. Despite this fact, they believed ICT policies were instrumental in supporting their training and professional development programs. Results from interviews showed that some pre-schools had general school policies that had sections governing ICT but this did not seem to be the main concern of the respondents. Yusuf and Afolabi (2010) however recommend that in order to be successful, learning institutions should improve their education system by implementing effective and robust ICT policies necessary for its sustainability in teaching and learning.
The study findings are supported by Ihmeidah (2009) who noted that operative professional development helps teachers to cultivate an understanding of ICT that connects with their present pedagogical views and provides teachers with a chance to acquire and discover new ways of teaching in their pre-school classrooms.
These study findings are also in line with Jean Piaget’s theory of constructivism that assumes that the role of the teacher is to guide the learner rather than to transmit knowledge (Bruner, 2016) which implies that in order for the teachers to guide the learners about the use of ICT tools, they have to have knowledge of how to use them, which knowledge can be obtained through professional development programs. 
Given the various perceptions regarding ICT procedures, the study affirms that ICT procedures have a positive influence on early childhood education. 
5.2.3 ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
The study found a positive significant influence of ICT stakeholders on early childhood education implying that the role of the teachers, parents and administrators was an instrumental factor to the successful use of ICT in the teaching and learning of children. Many teachers agreed that they took time to select tools that were appropriate for the children’s learning activities, using ICT to assess children’s education outcomes, organizing their lesson activities and that ICT was a way of gaining extensive feedback from the children thereby improving communication between them. These study findings are in line with Cox et al. (2003) who noted that ICT benefits in learning hinge on the teachers selection and organization of the technology resources and how they are used and integrated with other activities in pre-school classrooms. 
Responses from the survey showed that ICT also serves a way of strengthening parental involvement in the children’s education especially where parents were required to work on ICT projects with their children. Interview results showed that this helped in the development of the children’s self-confidence and self-esteem levels and provided a way for parents to collaborate with teachers to help the children learn. These study finding were supported by Landry (2014) who noted that it is of great importance to build a relationship with parents by involving them in their children’s educational transformation. She highlighted that for children to develop social and cognitive skills necessary for later success in life, parents need to be supportive and responsive to their needs.  She further indicated that young children’s acquisition of problem solving, language and social emotional skills is facilitated by interaction with their parents.
The study also found out that administrative support was very crucial to the success of using ICT in the teaching and learning of children. Many respondents admitted to administrative support being the main influencing factor as to why they had adopted ICT in the teaching and learning of children. This implies that administrators as decision makers were very instrumental in supporting teachers which helped them to make informed decisions about teaching. This study finding was in line with Watts-Taffe et al. (2003) who stated that teachers can act as catalysts for the integration of technology into classroom practice if given encouragement, equipment and necessary technological support from their institutions and administrators.
Administrators being facilitators of learning, they support Piaget’s theory of constructivism (1980) by providing knowledge expansion ICT tools and support for teachers on how to use them. By doing so, they help children to generate knowledge and meaning from their experiences rather than remembering teacher directed facts. This helps them to turn what they know into a broader understanding of material and experiences presented which processes Piaget referred to as assimilation and accommodation respectively (Piaget, 1980). With these findings, the study therefore affirms that ICT stakeholders have a positive significant influence on early childhood education.
5.3 Conclusions 
Based on the study findings, a number of conclusions were made;
5.3.1 ICT Infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
The study findings revealed that ICT infrastructure has a positive significant contribution to early childhood education. ICT infrastructure tools like computers, televisions, tablets, educational software, the internet and other similar devices have been reported to assist the holistic and cognitive development of the children in pre-schools. It is therefore concluded that ICT infrastructure plays an important role in the promotion and enhancement of early childhood education in Uganda. 
5.3.2 ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education 
The study findings also revealed that ICT procedures had a positive significant influence on early childhood education. They were conceptualized in this study to include ICT professional development and ICT policies. Results from the survey and interviews showed that ICT professional development helped teachers to get acquainted with ICT tools, explore new ways of teaching and helped them to handle challenges brought about by the use of ICT. In light of the above, it is concluded that effective use of ICT in early childhood education is reliant on efforts to train teachers to gain the adequate skills necessary for the teaching and learning of children. Given the varying responses to ICT policies, it is concluded that robust and effective ICT policies are essential for the success and sustainability of the use of ICT in early childhood education
5.3.3 ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education 
The study findings additionally revealed that ICT stakeholders had a positive significant influence on early childhood education. The active role of the teachers, parents and administrators were seen as instrumental to the success of early childhood education. The study inferred that teachers and parents were indeed agents of instruction helping in the holistic development of children and administrators were facilitators of learning providing the necessary tools and support necessary for the successful use of ICT in early childhood education. Accordingly, it is concluded that effective use of ICT in early childhood education is reliant on ICT stakeholder engagement to aid and support the holistic development and well-being of the children. 
5.4 Recommendations of the Study 
In view of the study conclusions, several recommendations were made;                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                
5.4.1 ICT Infrastructure and Early Childhood Education
The study revealed that ICT infrastructure enhances the children’s development of numeracy, literacy, verbal, creativity, innovation and a whole lot of skills discussed in the findings. It is therefore recommended that government pre-schools should take up the use of ICT infrastructure tools like computers, electronic whiteboards, electronic toys, the internet, educational software programs and all learning facets required to support the holistic development of children. 
Uganda faces many challenges like a poorly developed ICT infrastructure, high bandwidth costs, poverty to mention but a few. In light of the above it is recommended that the government, MoES and UNICEF should support and guide government pre-schools on how to integrate ICT in to their curriculum by providing the necessary support and equipment essential for its successful use in the learning of children.
5.4.2 ICT Procedures and Early Childhood Education
The study findings revealed that effective ICT policies are essential for the success and sustainability of the use of ICT in early childhood education. Accordingly, it is recommended that pre-schools should develop independent ICT policies that govern the use of ICT in the teaching and learning of children. 
The study findings also revealed that effective use of ICT in early childhood education is reliant on efforts to train teachers to gain the adequate skills necessary for the teaching and learning of children. In light of the above, it is recommended that teachers should be regularly trained in ICT skills to increase their motivation in using ICT to effectively teach the children. 
5.4.3 ICT Stakeholders and Early Childhood Education
The role of the teacher is very essential to the successful use of ICT in early childhood classrooms.  Therefore, it is recommended that teachers should adapt themselves, the children and the pedagogies to the new technologies and the possibilities they offer. 
Since parental involvement was reported to enhance the children’s self-esteem and confidence levels, it is recommended that teachers should continuously engage parents so that they are able to participate in their children’s ICT education.
Administrative support was the key influencing factor as to why most teachers were using ICT in early childhood classrooms. Drawing from this, it is recommended that administrators offer their unconditional support to the teachers by providing them with the necessary tools and training necessary for the successful integration of ICT in the early childhood curricula. 
5.5 Limitations of the Study
The study relied on information only from perceptions of respondents from Kampala pre-schools without consideration of other early childhood centers in the different areas of the country which should have given a wider experience on the study problem.
The study was also limited by the research design in that a cross sectional study design was used that allows for collection of data only at a specific point in time without consideration of other factors.
Finally, the study was limited by time because it focused on a period of only five years (2012 to 2016) without consideration of the other years that might have been relevant to the study.  
5.6 Contributions of the Study
The study explored the contribution of ICT to early childhood education in Uganda including the role of the teachers, parents, administrators and the usefulness of having ICT policies and ICT professional development programs in place. In light of the above, the following contributions were reached;
The study contributed to the knowledge area about ICT and early childhood education. Specifically, it addresses how ICT can support four specific learning areas in early childhood education that is; literacy, numeracy, verbal and creativity skills given the different challenges that Uganda faces as a country like poverty and a lack of infrastructure. 
The study also provided recommendations on how public pre-schools can be helped to integrate ICT into their curricular by providing the empirical findings about the potential benefits of doing so including the role of ICT procedures and ICT stakeholders.
5.7 Areas for Further Research
The study investigated the contribution of ICT to early childhood education in Kampala city. Future research should focus on the following areas:
i.	Studying the contribution of ICT to early childhood education in other areas of the country besides Kampala city.
ii.	Using other forms of research designs like experimental designs that allow for the collection of data over longer periods of time. 
iii.	Using different data collection methods for example focus group discussions and documentary reviews.

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS
Introduction
Dear Sir/Madam
I am Tina Nambuusi, a Masters student of Uganda Management Institute (UMI) pursuing a master’s degree in Management studies in Information Systems Management. I am conducting research on the topic “The Contribution of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to Early Childhood Education.” 
The information provided will be used solely for study purposes and will be treated with utmost confidentiality.
SECTION A:	Respondents Bio Data
Please tick the option you consider to be the most appropriate 
1. Age group
(1) 20-25years

(2) 26-30years                                                (4) 36-40years

(3) 31-35years                                                (5) 41 and above

2. Sex
(1)Male                                                         (2) Female

3. Qualification.
(1) Certificate
(2) Diploma
(3) Degree
(4) Postgraduate Training (Masters/PhD)

4. Period of Service 
1) Less than one year                                              2) 2-3years

3) 4-6years                                                             4) over 10 years

Section B:	ICT INFRASTRUCTURE AND EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Key

Strongly Agree	Agree	Undecided	Disagree	Strongly Disagree	
5	4	3	2	1	

For each of the statements below, please tick  one of the alternatives given in the appropriate box in the column bearing the number on the scale that most closely represents your opinion based on your own views. 

No	ICT Hardware	1	2	3	4	5	
1.		The use computers, tablets, interactive whiteboards and televisions in the classroom increases the children’s motivation and focus in learning.						
2.		The use of tablets, electronic toys and other digital tools in the classroom improves the children’s academic performance						
3.		The use of ICT digital tools in the classroom lowers the concentration span of children, promotes aggressive behaviors and leads to language delays						
	ICT software						
4.		Educational software programs improve children’s creativity and innovative skills						
5.		 Educational software programs promote play make learning enjoyable for children 						
No	ICT communication networks	1	2	3	4	5	
6.	The use of the internet in the classroom increases the children’s access to learning materials present on educational websites						
7.	The use of internet in the classroom improves the children’s collaboration and social skills and supports exploration of new ideas.						

Section C. ICT PROCEDURES

No	ICT Professional Development	1	2	3	4	5	
1.	ICT Professional development programs provide me with opportunities to learn and explore new ways of teaching. 						
2.	ICT training programs provide me with opportunities to handle the challenges that ICT brings and gain expertise					

3.	The ICT training has helped me make informed decisions about teaching						
No	ICT Policies	1	2	3	4	5	
4.	There exists an ICT policy in my school that meets the needs of both educators and children as well as the legislative requirements						
5.	The ICT policies support teacher training and professional development						
6.	The presence of an ICT policy in the school has influenced my adoption of ICT in the classroom						

Section D. ICT STAKEHOLDERS

No	Teachers	1	2	3	4	5	
1.		I take time to select ICT tools that will best benefit the children’s learning						
2.		I use ICT to organize and assess children’s learning activities helping to them develop in the field of technology						
3.		ICT enables me to gather extensive feedback from children by listening to their explanations of their projects						
No	Parents	1	2	3	4	5	
4.	Pre-school ICT projects are a way of strengthening parental involvement in their children’s education						
5.	Collaborating with parents about their children’s ICT education enhances the children’s self-esteem while improving their academic performance						
No	Administrators	1	2	3	4	5	
6.	Administrative support  leads to the successful integration of ICT in the classroom						
7.	Administrative support influences my adoption of technology use in the classroom						

Section E. EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

No	Literacy 	1	2	3	4	5	
1.	Early literacy instruction with the use of ICT provides children with developmentally appropriate experiences and social support that encourage early forms of reading and writing to flourish.  						
2.	Creative play with use of ICT is one of the most effective ways to make literacy activities meaningful and enjoyable for children						
No	Creativity	1	2	3	4	5	
3.	The process of forming original ideas is enhanced by ICT through exploration and discovery						
4.	Creativity is promoted by allowing children to play computer games, watch educative programs on television and listen to sound recordings.						
No	Numeracy	1	2	3	4	5	
5.	Knowledge of number concepts, development of logical thinking skills, analysis and problem solving skills are enhanced when children interact with ICT tools.						
No	Verbal skills	1	2	3	4	5	
6.	Early language skills, fluency and effective communication skills are promoted by use of ICT.						

APPENDIX II: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ADMINISTRATORS
This research is part of a study on “The Contribution of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to Early Childhood Education” by Tina Nambuusi, Masters of Management Studies in Information Systems Management, Reg. 15/MMS/24/KLA/DAY/0419
I will greatly appreciate your help by answering these interview questions. All I ask is that you give your opinions as frankly and honestly as you can. Your confidentiality is guaranteed and your answers will be dealt with in absolute confidence.
ICT Infrastructure
1.	How has the use of ICT digital tools contributed to the children’s learning in your school?
2.	Does your school have internet connection? If so, what are the benefits and dangers you have encountered as a result of using the internet and various online resources in the learning of children?
ICT Procedures
3.	Does the school have an existing ICT policy?
4.	What do you perceive is the importance of having an ICT Policy?
5.	Does the school have professional development programs intended to develop the teacher’s ICT skills?
6.	What do you perceive is the importance of these professional development programs?
ICT Stakeholders
7.	What do you consider is the role of the teacher in relation to using ICT in the classroom?
8.	Do you consider parental involvement to be critical in their children’s ICT education? If so, how are they involved?
9.	Apart from professional development, what other support do you give to teachers and parents when it comes to ICT?
Early childhood Education
10.	Which competencies of children do you believe are supported and further developed by ICT? Please explain.
11.	How do you track, observe or evaluate that?
12.	Does your early childhood education program cover the following learning areas
•	Literacy
•	Creativity 
•	Numeracy 
•	Verbal skills
13.	How are they supported by ICT?

APPENDIX III: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PARENTS
Introduction
Dear Sir/Madam
I am Tina Nambuusi, a Masters student of Uganda Management Institute (UMI) pursuing a Master’s of Management Studies in Information Systems Management. I am conducting research on the topic “The contribution of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to Early Childhood Education.” 
The information provided will be used solely for study purposes and will be treated with utmost confidentiality.
SECTION A:	Respondents Bio Data
Please tick the option you consider to be the most appropriate.
1. Age group
(1) 20-25years

(2) 26-30years                                                (4) 36-40years

(3) 31-35years                                                (5) 41 and above

2. Sex
(1)Male                                                         (2) Female

3. Qualification.
(1) Certificate
(2) Diploma
(3) Degree
(4) Postgraduate Training (Masters/PhD)

5. Number of years as a parent in the school
1) Less than one year                                   2) 2-3years

3) 4-6years                                                   4) over 10 years

Section B:	ICT INFRASTRUCTURE AND EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Key

Strongly Agree	Agree	Undecided	Disagree	Strongly Disagree	
5	4	3	2	1	

For each of the statements below, please tick  one of the alternatives given in the appropriate box in the column bearing the number on the scale that most closely represents your opinion based on your own views. 
No	ICT Hardware	1	2	3	4	5	
1.	The use computers, tablets, interactive whiteboards and televisions in the classroom increases the children’s motivation and focus in learning.						
2.	The use of tablets, electronic toys and other digital tools in the classroom improves the children’s academic performance						
3.	The use of ICT digital tools in the classroom lowers the concentration span of children, promotes aggressive behaviors and leads to language delays						
	ICT Software						
4.	Educational software programs improve children’s creativity and innovative skills						
5.	 Educational software programs promote play make learning enjoyable for children 						
No	ICT communication networks	1	2	3	4	5	
6.	The use of the internet in the classroom increases the children’s access to learning materials present on educational websites					
	
7.	The use of internet in the classroom improves the children’s collaboration and social skills and supports exploration of new ideas.						

Section C. EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

No	Literacy 	1	2	3	4	5	
1.	Early literacy instruction with the use of ICT provides children with developmentally appropriate experiences and social support that encourage early forms of reading and writing to flourish.  						
2.	Creative play with use of ICT is one of the most effective ways to make literacy activities meaningful and enjoyable for children						
No	Creativity	1	2	3	4	5	
3.	The process of forming original ideas is enhanced by ICT through exploration and discovery						
4.	Creativity is promoted by allowing children to play computer games, watch educative programs on television and listen to sound recordings.						
No	Numeracy	1	2	3	4	5	
5.	Knowledge of number concepts, development of logical thinking skills, analysis and problem solving skills are enhanced when children interact with ICT tools.						
No	Verbal skills	1	2	3	4	5	
6.	Early language skills, fluency and effective communication skills are promoted by use of ICT.						

APPENDIX IV: OBSERVATION CHECKLIST
This research is part of a study on “The Contribution of Information and Communication Technology to Early Childhood Education” by Tina Nambuusi, Masters of Management Studies in Information Systems Management, Reg. 15/MMS/24/KLA/DAY/0419
1.	Available ICT infrastructure like electronic white boards, computers, electronic toys, e.tc and internet connection
2.	How children use ICT (activities)
3.	How children’s learning is supported by ICT
4.	How teachers use ICT to help the children learn
5.	Observe children at play.

APPENDIX V:     CHILDREN’S QUESTIONNAIRE

How do you like to learn?
 Age            2-4                5-6                               
Gender        Boy               Girl     
I hope that you have fun when you come to school and like playing with the toys and enjoy all the activities at school.
It is very important to me that you feel safe and comfortable when answering this questionnaire.  It would really help me if you could answer these questions for me. Your thoughts and ideas will be very useful in making your learning experience better.
A. Creativity test
Please tick your answer, Yes means you Agree and No means you Disagree Maybe means you are not sure	
1. I like to use computers and other electronic toys at school.  Yes                No 
2. I use the computer to:    Yes                        No
	Draw                         
	Paint
	Play games
	Listen to music
	Watch DVDs
	Learn  
	Listen to stories           
	None of the above
B. Numeracy Test
Please answer the following questions
                                        Yes                     No
1. 75 comes after 76? 
2. 65 is smaller than 59 
                                                                        Yes                       No
3. A triangle has 4 sides
                                                                         Yes                      No
4. June is the 6th month of the year  
5. 20 + 5 = 25
6. 17 - 8= 10                                                                                      
7. 2 x 2 = 4                                                                                                                                           
7. I have 5 red pencils and 8 green pencils.                    Yes               No
There are 3 green pencils more than the red ones.

C. Verbal and Literacy test skills test
i) Sound fluency
1. I can pronounce the following words.              Yes                      No
	Floor 
	Door
	Cook
	Cool 
ii) Reading fluency                                          Yes        No        some
2. I can read all the words in this paragraph.   
In a village near the castle, an eccentric inventor named Maurice lived with his beautiful daughter named Belle. One day, Maurice set off for a fair with his latest invention. As night fell, he lost his way and had to seek refuge in the beast’s castle. Belle was bored with life in her little village. She wanted adventure and that’s what she found the day she set off to rescue her father from a terrifying beast

APPENDIX VI: KREJCIE AND MORGAN SAMPLING GUIDELINES